
Book_JSAi 



OFFICIAL DONATION. 



I 



L 



REPORT 



COMMISSION APPOINTED TO INVESTIGATE 



THE EXISTING SYSTEMS 



MANUAL TRAINING 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



BOSTON : 

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 

18 Post Office Square. 

1893. 



A 



2 DEC 1905 
D. ofD, 






' il 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Report, 



PAGE 

3 



Part I. — By EDWIN P. SEAVER. 

The recent history of manual training and industrial education, . . 6 

Part II.— By LOUISA PARSONS HOPKINS. 

Elementary manual training, . . . . . . . . 31 

Kindergarten manual training, 31 

Manual training in the primary school, 37 

Opinions of educators as to primary methods of manual training, . . 38 

Kindergarten occupations in the primary school, 39 

Courses of manual training for elementary schools, .... 41 

Conditions for manual training, 47 

Moral result of manual training, 49 

Conclusions, 50 

Sewing, 51 

Cookery, 53 

Vacation industrial schools, 55 

Permanent industrial schools, 56 

Normal industrial schools, 57 

Part III. —By GEORGE E. McNEILL. 

Social and economic aspects, 58 

Recommendations, 80 



APPENDICES. 

A. 

A plan for a mechanic arts high school in the city of Boston, by Edwin 

P. Seaver, Superintendent of Public Schools, .... 85 

B. 

Manual training in Brookline, by John D. Runkle, member of the Brook- 
line School Committee, ... v 108 



C. 

Manual training in the Wra. H. Lincoln School, Brookline, Mass., 

remarks by Principal D. S. Faruham, 120 



MANUAL TRAINING — PLATES. 



PLATES 



I., II , III. and IV., a graded course in wood-work, prepared by Mr. 
Frank M. Leavitt and taught by him in the Eliot School at Jamaica 
Plain. 

V., wood-working room in the Eliot School at Jamaica Plain. 

VI. and VII. show Swedish sloyd for grammar schools, as taught by Mr. 
Gustaf Larsson, Appleton Street School, Boston. 

VIII., IX. and X. show the course taught by Mr. B. F. Eddy at the Indus- 
trial School in North Bennet Street, Boston. 

XL shows class at work in the North Bennet Street Industrial School. 

XII. shows the class at drawing. 

XIII. shows the class gathered for a demonstration. 

XIV. and XV., exercises in wood-turning. 
XVI. -XXV., kindergarten occupations. 

XXVI. -XXXIII., Mrs. Cutler's primary manual training course. 

XXXIV. -XLI., Prang's manual training course. 

XLII.-XLV., original designs and applied drawing in grammar schools. 

XLVI.-LV., clay modelling, kindergarten, primary and grammar grades. 

LVI -LIX., Normal School of Cookery. 

LX., LXI , normal kindergarten work. 

LXII.-LXX., classes in cooking, sewing, cardboard construction (gram- 
mar), clay modelling (primary), and building (kindergarten). 

LXXL, the Eva Rodhe models. 

LXXII , wood-work of New York Training College, lowest grammar grades. 

LXXI1I , wood-work of New York Training College, work of normal pupils. 



MANUAL TRAINING — INDEX. 



INDEX 



Accommodations necessary for course of | 

study in Mechanic Arte High School, 93. 
Addison Street Day Industrial School, 281; 

rules and regulations for the management 

of, 286. 
Adler, Prof. Felix, on the method of manual 

training, 38. 
Adler's, Prof. Felix, Workingmen's School, 

271; sewing, embroidery, millinery and 

draughting in, 272. 
Agriculture, 216. 

Albumen, principal sources of, 253. 
Albumen, egg, experiment with, 254; cookery 

of, 254. 
Albumen, meat, experiment with, 255. 
Algebra, 174, 179, 216. 
Anderson, Newton M., 17, 18. 
Appleton Street School, 25, 134, plates VI. 

and VII., Appendix F.; descriptive charts 

of Swedish sloyd used in, 135-138. 
Apprenticeship, old system of, passing away, 

26, 61; manual training a substitute for, 26. 
Arithmetic, 216. 
Art, 277. 
Attitudes, proper, in handling tools, 226. 

Baking powder, composition of, 252; experi- 
ment with, 252; in doughs, 252. 

Bassinet, Mr., report on the Girls' School of 
Useful and Domestic Arts, Paris, 265. 

Bathing, 281, 283 

Benches, carpenter's, for first wood-working 
room, 96; for second wood-working room, 
99; for second metal-working room, 101; in 
theB. M. C. Durfee High School, 173; in 
the Springfield Manual Training School, 
with drawing of same, 188, 189. 

Bench hook and planing board, 155. 

Beverages, study of, 258. 

Biology, 261. 

Blind dowel joint at corner, 148. 

Block for soils, 131. 

Blow, Miss Susan, 31. 

Blue prints, work done entirely from, in the 
B. M. C. Durfee High School, 175. 

Bolt-fitting, 176. 

Book work, 86. 



Boring exercise, 145, 175. 

"Boston Course of Study," 46, 233, 277. 

Boston primary course adopted by various 
cities, 47; photographs of, plates XXVI.- 
XXXIII., Appendix N. 

Boston Normal School of 'Cookery, 57, 262; 
training given in, exclusively for those in- 
tending to teach cookery, 262; aim of the 
school, 262; course of work in, 262, 263; 
diploma given by, 263. 

Botany, 175. 

Botany press, 132. 

Box for insect collections, 132. 

Boyden, A. G-., on " Manual Training in the 
State Normal School at Bridgewater," 126. 

Bradley, Milton, 276. 

Brass, 87. 

Bread, action of yeast in, 251. 

Bread-making, lesson on, 256. 

Bread trencher, 154. 

Bridgewater Normal School, 126. 

British Association, 230. 

Brookline, manual training in, 109; first step 
towards introduction of manual training into 
the schools of, 109, 110. (See Vacation In- 
dustrial Schools.) 

Brookline sewing course, 243, 244. 

Brooklyn bridge, structures like, the Shakes- 
pearian verse of the nineteenth century, 66, 

Byrnes, Superintendent of Police, 65. 

Cabinet bookcase, 177. 

Cabinet-making, 89. 

Calisthenics, simple, 239. 

Cardboard construction, 182, 234, 235, 238, 272, 

278. 
Carlyle, 75. 
Carpentry, 87; exercises in, 90, 116. (See 

Wood-working.) 
Carroll, Mr., 274. 
Casting, 87. 

Central Technical Institution, 230. 
Cereals, study of, 257. 
Certified industrial schools, 292. 
Chapman, Miss, 224. 

Chemistry, 86, 177, 179, 216, 261; sanitary, 306. 
Chicago Manual Training School, 16. 



6 



MANUAL TRAINING — INDEX. 



Children in Liverpool, of vicious surround- 
ings, committed by magistrates to indus- 
trial schools, 282; when old enough, put to 
trades or other work, 282; sent away under 
the emigration act as opportunity offers, 
282. 

Chinese almost universally poor, notwith- 
standing some education and a high degree 
of manual skill, 61. 

Chinese education, 62. 

Chinese wall, 70. 

Chipping and filing, exercises in, 92. 

Chiselling exercise, 147. 

Church and state, 79. 

Citizenship, 62, 63. 

Citizen soldiers, 67. 

Civilization now materialistic, 79. 

Class arrayed against class, 80. 

Classes, size of, 94, 95, 116, 190, 227. 

Clay modelling, 182^ 217, 221, 228, 233, 234, 237, 
238, 268, 272, 276. 

Clay moulding and carving, 234. 

Cleveland Manual Training School, 17. 

Coat hanger, 146. 

Code issued by Parliament, provisions of 
section relating to manual training, 231, 
232. 

Coin cabinet, 177. 

Coliseum, 77. 

College graduate, the, 170. 

College for the training of teachers, 219, 271, I 
272,306. J 

Color, use of , in manual training, 44; course | 
of work in, by S. W. Tilton, 45. 

Commission, the, report of, 1-81; members 
of, 3; plan of work of, 4; meetings of, 3, 4; | 
work of, during 1891, 4; instructed to con- 
tinue work, 5; recommendations of, 80, 81. 

Commonwealth, the, children of, 67; of 
Massachusetts, 67, 294; duty of, 72; should 
teach that labor is more than a commodity, 
74; American, 294. 

Competition, 79. 

Composition, 216. 

Compulsion, work of, section of industrial 
schools act (of Parliament), 293. 

Conference, a, on manual training, 234, note; 
277. 

Confucius, 61. 

Connell, Wm., manual training in the B. M. 
C. Durfee High School, 173. 

Convent of Notre Dame, Liverpool, training i 
class in cookery in, 285 

Cookery, 42, 261; public school children in 
this country first instructed in, 53 ; in schools 
in Great Britain, in Europe, in American 
cities, 54; lessons, 244; of starchy foods, 
249, 250 ; of eggs, 254 ; of meat, 255 ; course in, 
in the Liverpool Training School, 259; in the 
Pratt Institute, 272; instruction department 
of Johns Hopkins Hospital, 278; demon- 
stration in, 279, 281; training class in, at the 



Convent of Notre Dame, Liverpool, 285; 
centres in Liverpool, 286. 

Cookery School, Normal, 54; teacher's cer- 
tificate, 54; equipment and cost of, 270. 

Cooking, 113, 116, 120, 121, 227, 268; in the 
Wm. H. Lincoln School, 122; high school, 
in connection with physics and chemistry, 
1S2; course in, 257; in the School of Domes- 
tic Economy in the Purdue University, 259, 
260; in New Jersey schools, 303; in Tenny- 
son Street and North Bennet Street schools 
of Boston, 304; in the schools of New 
Haven, Conn., 305; in the schools of New 
York city, 305. 

Cooking schools, 53-55; Boston Normal Cook- 
ing School, 57; at Salem, 180; should not 
teach how to make a living, but how to 
live, 296. 

Copenhagen, 226. 

Cost, of benches and tools for first wood-work- 
ing room or carpenter's shop, 99; of furnish- 
ing pattern-maker's shop, 99; estimated, for 
first metal-working or blacksmith's shop, 
100; estimated, of tools and machinery in 
machine shop, 101; extra, to the town of 
Brookline for instruction in cooking, sew- 
ing and shop work, 123 ; of knife-work in the 
Northampton system, 172; of equipment and 
maintenance of the Manual Training School 
at Waltham, 180 ; of equipment in the Spring 
field Manual Training School, 188; of equip- 
ment for manual training in Montclair, 
N. J., 218 ; of the plant in Orange, N. J., 221 ; 
for cooking equipment, class of twenty 
pupils, 270; of kindergarten and sewing 
school, 271; estimated, of introducing man- 
ual training into the schools of New York 
city, 306. 

Curwen Manual Training School, 180. 

Cutler, Mrs. Caroline F., 46. 

Dancing, 274. 

Delia- Vos', M., exhibit at Philadelphia, 13. 

Desks, 177. 

Dickens, 73. 

Diggle, Mr., 278. 

Diploma given by the Boston Normal School 
of Cookery, 263. 

Distribution, law of, 70. 

Dodge, Miss Grace, 273. 

Domestic Economy, School of, in the Purdue 
University, 259 ; department of, in the Drexel 
Institute, 260; economy in this connection 
not synonymous with parsimony, 297; les- 
sons in, through a four years' course, 297; 
the aim in teaching, an educational one 
throughout, 301; department of, in the New 
York College for the Training of Teachers, 
306; course of, in the Purdue University, 
311, 312. 

" Domestic Economy as a Factor in Public 
Education," 54, 294. 



MANUAL TRAINING — INDEX. 



Domestic science, department of, in the 
Drexel Institute, 260; course in, in the 
Pratt Institute, 261. 

Domestic science and arts should be made an 
elective course, 57. 

Dowel, 144. 

Drapery Company gives £1,000 to further in- 
struction in the use of wood-working tools, 
230. 

Drawing in the kindergarten, 41 ; in the Wm. 
H. Lincoln School, 122; in the North Bennet 
Street Industrial School, 139; in all the 
classes in the schools of Orange, N. J., 221; 
in the schools of New Jersey, 223; advan- 
tage of associating, with manual instruc- 
tion, 232; introduced into Springfield gram- 
mar schools in 1870, 237. 

Drawing, constructive, 237, 239. 

Drawing, decorative, 236, 237, 239. 

Drawing, freehand, 87, 116, 216, 228, 237. 

Drawing, geometrical, 272. 

Drawing, illustrative, 276. 

Drawing, mechanical, 117, 118, 175-179, 272. 

Drawing, object, 236, 272, 276, 278. 

Drawing, pictorial, 237, 239. 

Drawing, working, emphasized in Russian 
shop instruction, 22; carried on with con- 
stant reference to shop- work, 86; of details 
of machines, 177; in Washington schools, 
236; in the Springfield course, 238. 

Drawings from nature, 236, 278. 

Drawing-room in the Wm. H. Lincoln School, 
121. 

Drawing-rooms, number and size of, 93; equip- 
ment of, 190. 

Drawing schools, evening, 180. 

Drawing table, description and perspective 
view of, 191. 

Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry, 
54, 55, 260. 

Duff, Miss, "Cookery Lessons," 244. 

Durfee, B. M. C, High School, 173; course of 
work in, 174. 

Dutton, Superintendent S. T., "A Statement 
concerning Manual Training in the Schools 
of Brookline," 124; extract from report by, 
305. 

Dynamos, 88. 

Economie Domestique et Hygiene, 307, 

311. 
Eddy, B. F„ 25, 134; "A Course in Manual 

Training," 139. 
Education, of boys and girls in Puritan times, 

58, 59; Chinese, 62; proper, 66; universal, 

78, 125; the aim of, to make good citizens, 

295. 
" Education of Man," Froebel's, 8-10, 28. 
Educational reform, 125. 
"Edwin Drood," 279. 
Eggs, cooking of, 254; study of, 258. 
Elder, Miss E. C, 165. 



Electric motor furnishes power for the Lin- 
coln school's wood- working shop, 118; in 
the B. M. C. Durfee High School, 174; in 
the Springfield Manual Training School, 
181, 188. 

Electricity, work in, in the Philadelphia Man- 
ual Training School, 277. 

Elementary schools of Liverpool, 283; science 
work in, 283; infant classes in, taught by 
kindergarten methods, 283; plan of building 
notable in, 284. 

Eliot School at Jamaica Plain, 25, 134, 279, 
285; interior of wood-working room, Plate 
V., Appendix F. 

Elizabeth, N. J., 219. 

Ellis, Geo. H., "A Conference on Manual 
Training," 234, note. 

Emergencies, 261. 

Emerson, 66. 

Emigration, section of industrial schools act 
(of Parliament) relating to, 292. 

Engine lathes, 101. 

England, 76, 77. 

English, 86, 174, 175, 177, 179, 279. 

Equality of mind, recognition of, typical of 
the spirit of the early Commonwealth, 294. 

Equipment for manual work in the Waltham 
school, 179; cost of, 180; of Springfield 
Manual Training School, 181, 188; and cost 
of cookery school, 270; and cost of kinder- 
garten and sewing school, 271. 

Examination for entrance into the Tiaining 
College, Liverpool, 286. 

Exhibit, London manual training, Mrs. Hop- 
kins' account of, 278. 

Exhibit, manual training, from Washington 
schools, 234, 277. 

Exhibition given by pupils of vacation school 
in Brookline, 113; by pupils of the Wm. H. 
Lincoln School, 121. 

Face plate work, 204. 

Famines, former and present causes of, 76. 

Farnham, D. S., on " Manual Training in the 

Wm. H. Lincoln School," 120. 
Fastenings, description of, 128. 
Fire, the, lessons on, 244; philosophy of, 245; 

fuel, heat, air necessary to, 246; making, 

249. 
Fish, study of, 258. 
Flour, composition of, 257, 300. 
Flower trellis, 150. 
Forging, 88; exercises in, 92. 
Form, study of, in the Prang course, 239. 
Fraley, Rev. Frederick A., 25, 165. 
French, 176, 177. 

Freshmen year, work during the, 174. 
Froebel, 7-11, 28, 31, 46, 272. 
Fruits, study of, 258. 

Geikie, Archibald, " The Teaching of Geog- 
raphy," 301, note. 



8 



MANUAL TRAINING 



INDEX. 



Geometric solids, 235. 

Geometric problems, 238. 

Geometry, 175, 176, 179, 216. 

German, 176, 177, 261. 

Girard College, 18, 19. 

Girls can receive instruction in wood-work- 
ing, 23, 125 ; class of, in the Waltham school, 
179; Miss Grace Dodge on courses for, 273; 
proper age of, to begin training in domestic 
economy, 301. 

Governmental functions, expansion of, 74. 

Graduation thesis, 88. 

Grammar schools, 21; of Boston, now trying 
Russian and Swedish systems, 22; wood- 
working in, 23. 

Greece, 75. 

Greek methods, 75. 

Griffin, B.C., 113, 121. 

Hailmann, Dr. W. N., on methods of manual 
training, 38; "Primary Methods," 43, 272, 
273. 

Hall stand, 177. 

Hallowell, Miss Anna, 31. 

Hammerton, 66. 

Hance, E. W. B. M., 281, 283, 285, 286. 

Hand-craft, 224, 227. 

Handicraft being displaced by machine craft, 
62. 

Handiwork, School of Womanly, at Rome, 
Italy, 267. 

Hand studies may be used almost entirely as 
an educational means, 117; used in this sense 
in the Lincoln school, 117. 

Harris, Dr., 62, 72. 

Harris, United States Commissioner W. T., 
280, 281. 

Hemenway, Mrs. Mary, 52-56. 

Hewitt's, Professor, treatise on manual train- 
ing for intermediate grades, 44, 283, 284. 

Hiawatha, 37, 274. 

Hicks, Mrs. Mary D., on the " Motive of the 
Prang Manual Training Course," 238. 

Highway School for Girls, 280. 

Hildreth, Geo. P., connection with vacation 
schools in Brookline, 109. 

Hillside Grammar School, 56. 

Hinckley, Frederick A., on "The Northamp- 
ton System of Manual Training," 165. 

Historical study, graphic representation of, 
277. 

History, 86. 

Holland, 77. 

Holmes Field of Harvard College, 79. 

Home nursing, 261. 

Hooker Grammar School, 183. 

Hopkins, Mrs. Louisa P., 3; part in the Com- 
mission's work, 4; on " Elementary Manual 
Training," 31; formulates Boston course of 
study, 46, 233; visits of, to schools in New 
York, Willimantic and Springfield, 271; 
visits of, to the schools of Philadelphia, 



Washington and Baltimore, 276; account of 
London manual training exhibit by, 278; 
visits of, to the schools of Paris, 280; visits 
of, to the schools of Liverpool, 281. 

Housekeepers in the Landreth School, Phila- 
delphia, 276. 

House decoration, lectures on, in the Pratt In- 
stitute, 261. 

Household art, 261. 

Household science, 261. 

Housework, 260, 268. 

Huxley, 231. 

Hygiene, 261, 295. 

Imperial Technical School at Moscow, Russia, 
12, 13. 

Industrial education defined, 6; consideration 
of the term, 116, 222. 

Industrial Educational Association, 219. 

Industrial schools of London and Liverpool, 
57; Newark Technical School, 216; of Liv- 
erpool, 281; children of vicious surround, 
ings committed to, by magistrates, 282; how 
children are cared for in, 282; work in, 282; 
sanitary arrangements of, 283. (See Mater- 
nal, Normal, Permanent, Vacation.) 

Industrial schools act (of Parliament), sec- 
tion on emigration, 292; section on work of 
compulsion, 293. 

Infant classes, 284. 

Inglis, W., H. M. inspector of reformatory 
and industrial schools, 291. 

Insect boards, 132. 

Instruction, course of, in manual training 
schools, 20; course of, in Pennsylvania 
State College, 21; course of, in the School 
of Mechanic Arts in the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology, 21; course of, in 
the St. Louis Manual Training School, 21; 
in wood-working in the Bridgewater school, 
24, 126; Russian system of shop, 12-21; in 
needle-work, 124. 

Inventions, when profitable, 62. 

Iron, 87. 

Jarvis, Wm. F., system of manual training at 

Waltham, 178. 
Johns Hopkins Hospital, cookery instruction 

department of, 278. 
Johnson, Miss, 122. 

Joinery, illustrations of problems in, 201. 
Joints, 152, 156, 175. 
Junior year, work during, 176. 

Kilbon, Geo. B., on "Springfield Manual 
Training School," 181. 

Kindergarten given to the world by Froebel, 
31; introduced into this country, 31; occu- 
pations as laid down by Froebel, 32, 33; 
"the gifts," 32; occupations, description of, 
34, 35 ; relation of the, to the primary school, 



MANUAL TRAINING 



INDEX. 



36; in the London and Liverpool board 
schools, 36; in Paris, 36; in New Britain 
and Willirnantic, Conn., 37; study of Hia- 
watha, 37; occupations in the primary school, 
description of , 39, 40; illustrations of geom- 
etry, botany, geography and mineralogy by 
paper and card cutting, 40; occupations in 
Washington, Brookline and Boston schools, 
41; proper forms and symbols for repre- 
sentations in the, 45; the, an intelligent pro- 
test against the old method of education, 69; 
in the Brookline schools, 124; in Paterson, 
N. J., 223; in Somerville, 237; equipment 
and cost of, 271; Dr. Hailmann on the, 272; 
in the New Britain Normal and Model 
School, 274; sloyd in the, 274, 275; dancing 
in the, 274; in the Willirnantic Normal 
School, -275; course, 281; methods in the 
Liverpool elementary schools, 283, 

Kiffg Street School, 55. 

Knife-work, 25, 42; in Northampton, 165, 166; 
line cutting, 166; material used for, 166; les- 
sons in, are dictated, 166; tablets, 166; illus- 
trations of, 167-169, 184-187; surface cutting, 
169; cutting.of crystal models, illustrations, 
170; illustrations of prism models, 171; cut- 
ting of solids, 172; evolution of four figures 
from the cube, 172; evolution of six figures 
from the right prism, 172; cutting of crystal 
forms, 172; teachers and scholars warmly 
interested in, 172 ; expense of tools and work, 
172; teachers in, 172; in the Springfield 
Manual Training School, 181, 276; experi- 
ment with, in the Hooker Grammar and the 
Tapley schools, 183; in sloyd, in London, 
226. 

Labor, indignities of manual, 64; distaste for 
natural, 65; may be raised to the standing 
of the professions, 69 ; child taught to despise, 
72; the age limit of children to, 74; reduc- 
tion in the hours of, 74; the material life of 
the world, 74; an effort now being made to 
re-enslave, 75; not a commodity, 75; Carlyle 
on, 75; of the world has been performed by 
ignorant men, 77 ; and property in different 
classes essentially antagonistic, 78; in the 
same class fraternal, 78. 

Labor reformers among the first to advocate 
the kindergarten and School of Technology, 
63. 

Laboratory method, 86. 

Landreth School, Philadelphia, 43; Mrs. Hop- 
kins' visit to, 276. 

Language, 239. 

Lathes for second wood working room or 
pattern shop, 99; engine for machine shop 
or second metal-working room, 101. 

Larsson, G-ustaf, 24, 25, 134, 279. 

Laundry work, 227, 258, 260, 261, 268, 279, 281. 

Leavitt, Frank M., 25, 134. 

Level, 162. 



Lincoln, Wm. H., donation of, 121. 

Lincoln, the Wm H., Grammar School, 20, 21, 
114, 115, 124; hand studies used in, as an 
educational means, 117; exhibition by the 
pupils of, 117; instruction in, during 1888-89, 
118; during 1890-91, 118; addition to, of a 
wood-working and pattern shop, 118; power 
for, furnished by a Thomson-Houston elec- 
tric motor, 118; exhibition by the pupils of, 
121; annex for, provided, 121; drawing-room 
in, 121; carpentry shop in, 121; forging, 
foundry work and metal turning in, 121; 
shop work, cooking and sewing in, 122; 
drawing in, 122; cost of manual training in, 
123. 

Literature, 86. 

Liverpool, visits of Mrs. Hopkins to the manual 
training schools of, 281; elementary schools 
of, 283; University College in, 285. 

Liverpool Training School of Cookery, 258. 

Locke, 7, 231. 

Lockers, 93, 94. 

Longfellow, 274. 

Lowell School, the, 25. 

Lubbock, Sir John, 230. 

Machinery taking the place of hand craft, 62; 
discharging laborers faster than new em- 
ployments are provided, 62 ; with power, use 
of, in grammar schools, 22; for wood-work- 
ing rooms, 96; for metal working room or 
machine shop, 101. 

Machines, complete, made by pupils, 89. 

Machine tools, exercises with, 92, 176. 

Macrame work, 278. 

Magnus, Sir Philip, " Manual Training in 
English Schools," 229. 

Mallet, 157. 

Mann, Horace, 76, 294. 

Mann, Mrs. Horace, 31. 

McNeill, Geo. E., 3; part in the Commission's 
work, 4; on "Social and Economic As- 
pects," 58. 

McWilliams, Mr., 279. 

Manual training defined, 6; added to the 
work of existing schools in various cities, 
19; elementary, 31; for the kindergarten, 
31; in the primary and lower grammar 
schools properly based on the development 
of kindergarten occupations, 37; primary 
methods of, opinion of General Walker on, 
38; primary methods of, Prof. Felix Adler 
on, 38; primary methods of, Dr. W. N. Hail- 
mann on, 38; the method of, Geo. Ricks on, 
39; a method, rather than a department 
of educational work, 39; conference on, 41, 
234, 277; in the London and Liverpool 
schools, 42, 278, 285, 286 ; in the Paris schools, 
42,280; in the European schools under the 
direction of scientists and educators on the 
accepted doctrine that the ends sought are 
pre eminently educational, 42; work in Ger- 



10 



MANUAL TJRAINING 



INDEX. 



many, 42; in Norway and Sweden, 42; pub 
lished courses in, 43; occupations with re- 
gard to New England industries, 46; Boston 
course of study in, 46, 233; Boston Primary 
course of, 47, plates XX VI. -XXX III, Ap- 
pendix N; conditions for, 47; co-ordination 
of, with hygienic requirements, 47; in con- 
nection with spiritual, moral and aesthetic 
faculties, 48; moral result of, 49; as a 
means of moral culture, 49; testimony of 
teachers as to the beneficial effect of, on 
pupils, 50; summary of benefits derived 
from, 51; benefits of, 67; does not mean 
trade or tool training, 67; early plea for, 68; 
system of, advocated by this Commission, 
73; in Brookline, 108; in the Wm. H. Lin- 
coln School, 120; value of , as an educational 
power, 123; cost of , in the Lincoln School, 
123; statement concerning, in the schools of 
Brookline, 124; relation of, to other depart- 
ments of teaching in the Lincoln School, 
124; in the State Normal School at Bridge- 
water, 126; educative in its aim, 126; a 
course in, by B. F. Eddy, 139; Northampton 
system of, 165; in the B. M. C. Durfee High 
School at Fall River, 173; at Waltham, a 
modification of sloyd, 178; at Salem, 180; 
in New Jersey, 215; in Montclair, N. J., 
217; taught in the School for Deaf Mutes, 
221; and trade teaching, distinction between, 
222; purely educational in aim and method, 
222; a stimulus to the progress of the school 
in other directions, 223; in London, 224, 
227; in England at present experimental, 
228; in English schools, 229; now recog- 
nized as part of the English system of pub- 
lic elementary education, 229; diverse views 
on, 230; exhibit from "Washington schools, 
234, 277; Somerville course in, 237; Spring- 
field course in, 237 ; a method for all branches 
of study in Mr. O'Neil's school, 272; in the 
Willimantic Normal School, 275; in the 
Landreth School, Philadelphia, 276; in the 
Washington schools, 277; for teachers in 
the University College, Liverpool, 285; ad- 
vocates of, look chiefly to the effect on the 
pupil, rather than to the actual work accom- 
plished, 300; extract from report on, by 
special committee of the New Jersey State 
Board of Education, 303, 304. 

"Manual Training in the Common Schools," 
extract from a report on, 305. 

Manual training school a substitute for the 
training formerly received by children in 
the home, 61; at St. Louis, 15; at Chicago, 
16; at Baltimore, 17; at Toledo, 17; at Cleve- 
land, 17; at Philadelphia, 18, 276, 277; at 
Cincinnati, 19; at Denver, 19; at New 
Orleans, 19; at Fall River, 20; at Spring- 
field, 20; at Boston, 20. 

"Manual Training School," Woodward's, 21, 
90. 



Marble rake, 155. 

MardwelPs, Miss, M Missing Link," 44. 

Massachusetts, early law of, on habits of in- 
dustry, 26 ; Commonwealth of, what it stands 
for, 67; the danger in, 78. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology estab- 
lishes school of mechanic arts, 13; shop 
exercises used in, 21; course of laboratory 
work in sanitary chemistry in, 306. 

Match safe, 153. 

Maternal industrial schools of Paris, 57. 

Mathematics, 86; thorough knowledge of, es- 
sential to success in drawing and construc- 
tion, 86. 

Measuring and lining exercise, 140. 

Meats, cooking of, 255; study of, 258. 

Mechanic arts, meaning of term, 11. 

Mechanic Arts High School, 20, 85 ; curriculum 
of, 85; time in, and how divided, 85; shcps 
of, how occupied during the course, 102; 
detailed description of the shops of, 95-102 ; 
organization of, 102; appointment of teach- 
ers in, 102; woodcut of exterior, with plans 
of first and second floors of, following, 104. 

Medical service in the Municipal School of 
Useful and Domestic Arts, Paris, 266. 

Meleney, C. E., on M Industrial Education and 
Manual Training in New Jersey," 215; in 
reply to questions by the Commission, 223. 

Metal, work in, 176, 177; designing, engraving 
and chasing on, 217. 

Metal turning, exercises in, 176, 177. 

Metal work in the Philadelphia Manual Train- 
ing School, 277. 

Metallurgy, 87. 

Mineral cabinet, 133. 

Mitre box, 15S. 

Modelling, geographical, in sand, 276. 

Models for wood-working, 140-163. 

Money devoted by the State of New Jersey to 
the establishment of industrial schools, 215- 
220. 

Montclair, N. J., starts a manual training 
movement, 217; course of work in its school, 
217, 218; equipment of, and amount of money 
raised for its school, 218. 

Morristown, N. J., 219. 

Motion songs, 239. 

Moulding, 87 ; exercises in, 91. 

Mowray, W. A., on manual training in Salem, 
180. 

Municipal School of Useful and Domestic 
Arts, Paris, 263; designed to give young 
girls the means of learning a lucrative busi- 
ness and to prepare them for fulfilling family 
duties, 263; professional and general courses 
in the, 264; requirements for admission into 
the, 264 ; report on the, by Mr. Bassinet, 265 ; 
regulations of the, 265; programme of the, 
266; faculty of the, 266; medical service of 
the, 266 ; earnings of graduates from the, 266. 

Murphy, Mr., 286. 



MANUAL TRAINING — INDEX. 



11 



Naas School of Sloyd, 57, 225. 

Nail box with square joints, 143. 

Natural Association for the Promotion of 
Technical Education, 231. 

Nature study, 239. 

Needle-work in the London schools, 227; in 
Washington schools, 235. 

Newark the first city in New Jersey to profit 
by the legislature's offer of assistance, 215. 

Newark Technical School, 216; is pre-emi- 
nently an industrial school, 216; course of 
study in, 216; no shop work in, 216; expec- 
tation of opening a day school with special 
reference to the artistic side of manufactur- 
ing, 217; the only school operating under the 
law of 1881, 217. 

New Britain Normal and Model School, 274. 

New England farm as a kindergarten, 28, 60. 

New Jersey Industrial Educational Associa- 
tion, 219. 

New Jersey State Board of Education, 303. 

New Jersey, State of, gives money for the 
establishment of industrial schools, 215- 
220. 

New York Training College for Teachers, 
57. 

Nicholass, L. A., 262. 

Normal industrial schools, 57 ; most prominent 
ones, 57; courses in, 57; at Bridgewater, 
126. 

Northampton School, 25, 43, 165; course of 
work in, 166. 

•'Northampton System," 165. 

North Eennet Street Industrial School, 25, 53, 
55, 56, 134, 139, 268, 285, plates VIH.-XIII., 
Appendix F. 

Northumberland Terrace, 282. 

Number, 239. 

Nystrom, Miss, 224. 

O'Neil's, Mr. Hugh, Grammar and Primary 
School, 271; object drawing and clay model- 
ling in, 272. 

Orange, N. J., money for manual training 
raised in, 221; work in, 221; expenditures, 
221. 

Paper folding, 233, 235, 237. 

Parallel force apparatus, 133. 

Paris, visits of Mrs. Hopkins to the schools of, 

280. 
Parliament, 231, 292. 
Parqueterie, 221. 
Parthenon, 77. 
Pasting, 238. 

Paterson, N. J., 219, 220, 223. 
Pattern making, 87, 117; exercises in, 91, 211- 

214. 
Peabody, Miss Elizabeth P., 31. 
Permanent industrial schools, 56. 
Pestalozzi, 7, 31. 
Philadelphia Manual Training School, 18, 277. 



Philadelphia sewing course, 241, 242. 

Physical phenomena, 283. 

Physical geography, 174. 

Physics, 86, 176, 179, 216, 261. 

Physiology, 174. 

Picture frame, 144, 158, 159. 

Pierson, Mr., 285. 

Pilgrims, 79. 

Planing exercise, 142, 174. 

Planing machine exercise, 177. 

Planing trough, 160. 

Plant life, study of, 275. 

Plaster for casting, 87. 

Play ground should be a feature of the child's 
opportunity, 79. 

Population, congregation of, into towns and 
cities, and consequent effect on the home 
education, 60. 

Poor, the, 69; children of, 69; justice to, 70; 
the laboring, 70. 

Porson, Dean, 282. 

Poverty, how responsible for vice, 65; of par- 
ents, 70, 73. 

Prang manual training course, the, 47, 233, 237, 
238, plates XXXIV.-XLV.; motive of , 238; 
primary work in, 239. 

Pratt Institute, 54, 55, 57, 261, 272. 

Pressing or cutting board, 152. 

Prizes offered for attendance at vacation in- 
dustrial schools, 111. 

Problems in the use of the hammer, 192; in 
measurement, 192; with try square, 192; in 
gauging, 192; in sawing to line, 193; in sur- 
face planing, 193; in boring, 195; with brad 
awl, 196; in shove planing, 196; in cut- 
ting to width and length, 196; with hand- 
screw, 197; with dividers, 197; on the square 
prism, 197, 198; with chisel, 199; with 
gouge, 199; with screw driver, 199; in wood- 
turning, 202, plates XIV , XV.; in templet 
forms, 203; in polished forms, 203; in face- 
plate work, 204; in assembled work, 205; in 
wood carving, 206-208; in relief work, 209, 
210; in pattern making, 211-214. 

Production, monotony of present process of, 
61; of wealth, essential to the development 
of humanity, 61; piecework method of, 
64. 

Progress, human, did not begin with improve- 
ments most closely allied to material pros- 
perity, 76. 

Projections, orthographic, 176. 

Projects for graduation theses, 88, 89; during 
the senior year, 177. 

Public health, 295. 

" Punch and Judy face" on children, 73. 

Pumps, 88. 

Purdue University, course of the School of 
Domestic Economy in, 311, 312. 

Recommendations of Commission, 80, 81. 
Relief work, 209, 210. 



12 



MAXtTAL TRAINING 



INDEX. 



Report of a special committee on manual 
training of the New Jersey Board of Edu- 
cation, extracts from, 222. 

Repousse work, 217. 

Resolution of General Court creating Com- 
mission, 3. 

Revival of learning, 75. 

Revolution now in progress, 80; shall it be a 
peaceful one? 80 

Richards, Mrs. Ellen H., " Domestic Economy | 
as a Factor in Public Education," 54, 294. 

Ricks, G-eo., on methods of manual training, j 
39; «« Hand and Eye Training," 44, 280. 

Rindge, Frederick H., gift of a manual train- I 
iug school to Cambridge, 20. 

Rodhe, Eva, models, 43, Plate LXXL, Appen- 
dix N. 

Roman aqueduct, 77. 

Room, first wood working, orcarpenter's shop, 
95-98; cost of, 99; second wood-working, or 
pattern shop, 95, 99; cost of, 99; first metal- 
working, or blacksmith's shop, 95, 99; esti- 
mated cost of, 100; second metal- working, 
or machine shop, 95, 100; estimated cost of, 
101; wash room, 101. 

Rousseau, 7. 

Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruc- 
tion, 229. 

Ruler, to make a, 131. 

Runkle, Prof Jno. D., 13, 18, 21, 124; on 
" Manual Training in Brookline," 108. 

Ruskin, 76. 

Russell, His Excellency Governor Wra, E., 3, 
280, 281. 

Russian system of shop instruction, 12, 13, 14, 
18, 21, 227. 

Russias, 77. 

Salomon, Mr., 225. 

Sand-paper block, 148. 

Sanitary law, 295. 

Sawing exercises, 141, 174. 

School, the public, for the training of citizens, 
65; a work shop, play ground, etc., 66; not 
merely the feeder of colleges, 67 ; of America, 
a unique development in educational insti- 
tutions, 294. {See Cookery, Industrial, Man- 
ual Training, Sewing, Grammar.) 

School for Deaf Mutes, 221. 

School girl, the American, future of the 
American home depends upon, 301. 

School house, its place in the social economy 
of the Puritans, 59. 

School of Womanly Handiwork, Rome, Italy, 
267. 

Science, 86; elementary, 239; work in the 
Liverpool elementary schools, 283. 

Scotland, 77. 

Screw cutting, 176. 

Seaver, Edwin P., 3; part in the Commission's 
work, 4 ; on " The Recent History of Manual 
Training and Industrial Education," 6; "A 



Plan for a Mechanic Arts High School in 
the City of Boston," 85. 

Senior year, work during, 177. 

Sewing, 42, 116, 121, 182, 233, 234, 237, 238, 240- 
244, 261, 269, 278; the first branch of indus- 
trial education placed in Boston schools, 51; 
legalized by the General Court of Massachu- 
setts through the efforts of Robert Swan, 51; 
cost of material, 52; teacher's salary, 52; 
carried on in girls' schools in England and 
on the continent, 53; in the Wm. H. Lin- 
coln School, 122, 123; in Orange, N. J., 
schools, 221; course of instruction in, laid 
down by the New England Superintendents' 
Association, 240; materials for, 241; Phila- 
delphia course in, 241; Brookline course in, 
243. 

Sewing schools in this country, 53, 233. 

Sharpening exercise, 142. 

Shaw, Mrs. Pauline Agassiz,31. 

Shaw, Mrs. Quincy A., 268. 

Shop work, 87, 88, 175-177; main features of, 
may be regarded as permanent, 89; courses 
of, recommended as good to begin with, 93; 
in the Wm. H. Lincoln School, 122. 

Slavery the corner stone of Grecian social 
system, 75. 

Sloyd practised by all country boys, 60. 

Sloyd, American, 22, 139, 272. 

Sloyd, Swedish, 21, 124, 224, 268, 278, 279, 285; 
weak point of, 22, 225; exercises employed 
in, 23; instruction in, given to Boston school 
teachers by Mr. Larsson, 24; N'aas school of, 
57, 225 ; descriptive charts of, as used in the 
Appleton Street School, 135-138, plates VI., 
VII.; carried on in over fourteen hundred 
schools in Sweden, 224; Danish and Russian 
compared with, 224; in London, 225; age of 
pupils in, 226; length of course in, 226; tools 
used in, 226; size of classes in, 227; teachers 
of, 228; in the kindergarten, 274, 275. 

Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Chil- 
dren, 292. 

Society for the Repression of Immorality, 
292. 

Soft metal, for casting, 87. 

Somerville course, 237. 

Sophie Germain Superior School, 280. 

Sophomore year, work during, 175. 

Spain, 77. 

Spauldiug, Randal], 217, 218. 

Specific gravity apparatus, 133.. 

Specifications given pupils to build machines 
from. 89. 

Speed lathes, 88. 

Springfield Manual Training School, 25, 43, 
173, 181; appropriations for, 181; value of 
equipment of, 181; work in, organized in 
two departments, 181; courses in these de- 
partments, 181 ; work in the primary grades, 
182; wood- working equipment of, 188; visit 
of Mrs. Hopkins to, 275. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



INDEX. 



13 



Springfield course, 237. 

Stage coach, 295. 

Starch, experiment with, 249; composition 

and microscopic appearance of, 250. 
State Teachers' Association at Trenton, 219. 
Steam engines, 88. 
Steam shovel reaches the poorest paid and 

most illiterate of unskilled workers, 62. 
Steamed pudding, scientific principles called 

into play in the preparation of, 299. 
Stick laying, 233-235, 274. 
Stove, the, philosophy of, 247-249. 
St. Berner Street Board School, 279. 
St. Louis Manual Training School, 90. 
Swan, Robert, 51-53. 

Tables, 177. 

Tables, horseshoe, 286. 

Tapley School, 183. 

Tarry, Miss, 281. 

Teachers of primary and grammar classes can 
give instruction in wood-working, 23; of 
cookery, 54; qualities in, for the Mechanic 
Arts High School, 103; moral character and 
personal habits of, should be unexceptiona- 
ble, 103; of sloyd, qualities to be possessed 
by, 228. 

Tennyson Street School, 55. 

Temperance, 295. 

Test-tube holder, 132. 

Test-tube stand, 132. 

Thoroughness desired rather than quantity 
of work, 140. 

Thumb tack-holder, 149. 

Tilton, S. W., course of work in color, 45. 

Tool laboratory work, 235. 

Tool-strop box, 151. 

Tools for the carpenter's shop, 97 ; individual, 
97, 101; bench, 97, 101; occasional, 97, 101; 
outlay required for, 98; list of, 98; cost of, 
99; for pattern shop, 99; cost of, 99; for 
blacksmith's shop, 99, 100; needed for forg- 
ing, 100; needed for moulding, 100; esti- 
mated cost of, for forging and moulding, 
100; for machine shop, 101; estimated cost 
of, 101; how to use, 128, 140; list and de- 
scription of, 129; cutting, list and descrip- 
tion of, 129, 130; miscellaneous, 130; used 
in the Northampton system, 165; wood- 
working, used in the B. M.C. Durfee High 
School, 173; for iron working, in the B. M. 
C. Durfee High School, 174; exercises in the 
use of, 174, 178; list of, used in the Spring- 
field Manual Training School, 188; used in 
sloyd work in London, 226; the use of, a 
distinguishing attribute of civilized man, 
298. 

Towel roller, 161. 

Trade, learning one, like learning a dead lan- 
guage, 62. 

Trade unions, 229. 

Trades, distaste for, 71. 



Trestle, 154. 
Trigonometry, 176, 216. 

Unemployed classes, danger in, 73. 

Unfortunate women, remarks on, by Superin- 
tendent of Police Byrnes, 65. 

Unlawful pursuits, why followed by so many, 
64. 

University College of Liverpool, 57; trains 
teachers for manual instruction, 285; exer- 
cises in the, 285; examination for entrance 
into, 286. 

Vacation Cookery School established by Mrs. 
Hemenway, 53. 

Vacation industrial schools, 55, 109 ; supported 
by private charitable organizations, 55 ; work 
done in, 55 ; how attended, 55 ; benefits of, 56. 

Vacation schools at Brookline, report of board 
on trial of, 109; continuance of, during 1882, 
109; Ceo. P. Hildreth's connection with, 
109; analysis of attendance at, 110; effects 
of irregular attendance at, 110; division of 
pupils and number of lessons given in, 110; 
success of, 110; during 1883, 110; citation 
from report on, for 1883, 111; during 1884, 
111; attendance at, 111; work done in, 111; 
result of, 112; again opened in July, 1886, 
112; instruction in, given by S. C. Griffen, 
113; continued during 1887, 114; during 
1888, held in the Wm. H. Lincoln building, 
114; report on, for 1888-89, 115; reorganiza- 
tion of course of study in, 116; for girls, 
113; cooking introduced in, 113; recom- 
mendations of advisory board on, 113. 

Vegetables, study of, 257. 

Very, Miss M. E., 56. 

Vineland,N. J., 219. 

Wage- worker, contrast between his present 

and former ways of working, 61; now less 

and less required to depend on himself in 

working, 61. 
Waite School, 55. 
Walker, Gen. F. A., on methods of manual 

training, 38. 
Ward Grammar School, 108, 114. 
Warrenton Street School, 55, 56. 
Washington schools, manual training exhibit 

from, 234; course of work in, through eight 

years, 235, 236. 
Washington University establishes a manual 

training school, 13. 
Wealth, 61, 77. 
Weaving, 221, 237, 278. 
Whisk broom frame, 163. 
White Chapel, 280. 
Whitman, Walt., 71. 
Willey, Miss, 122. 
Willimantic Normal School, 275. 
Winthrop School, 52. 
Wood, structure, grain, seasoning, etc., 127, 140. 



14 



MANUAL TRAINING 



INDEX. 



Wood carving, 89, 117; exercises in, 91, 206- 
208; equipment for, 190; course of, for girls 
in the Training College for Teachers, New 
York, 272; from Egyptian, Grecian, Latin 
and Moorish designs, 272. 

Woodward's " Manual Training School," 21, 
90. 

Wood-work called applied drawing in Liver- 
pool schools, 285. 

*' Wood-work," S. Barter's, 227, note. 

Wood-working, a form of manual training well 
suited to boys in grammar schools, 23; girls 
can receive instruction in, 23, 125; instruc- 
tion in, can be given by the regular teachers 
of primary and grammar grades, 23; lessons 
in, given to Boston school teachers by Mr. 
Larsson, 24; cities which have adopted it in 
the grammar schools, 24; with hand tools, 
23; adopted as a method of education in 
several schools, 24; course of, in the Bridge- 
water school, 24, 126; as carried on in Boston 
grammar schools, 24, 134; industrial labora- 
tory for, in Bridgewater, 126; selection of 
course in, 126; system of, used in the North 
Bennet Street School, the result of nine 
years of effort, 139; models for, 140-163; 



course of, in the North Bennet Street School, 
140, 164; in the B.M. C.Durfee High School, 
173; elementary, 178, 182, 191; advanced, 179; 
equipment for, in the Springfield Manual 
Training School, 188; high school, 200; in 
Orange, N. J., schools, 221; in London, 227; 
in the industrial schools of Liverpool, 282. 
(S?e Problems.) 

Wood-turning, 87, 117, 175; exercises in, 91, 
175, 202; exercises in, as supplementary to 
the regular exercises in B. F. Eddy's system, 
164, plates XIV., XV. 

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 14, note. 

Workingmen's school in New York city, 38. 

Workshop, what can take the place of, in the 
education of girls, 298. 

Workshops, 93; number and size of, 93; in 
the Wm. H. Lincoln School, 121. 

Writing, 216. 

Wrought iron work, ornamental, 88. 

Yeast, 250; a tiny plant, 251,256; growth of, 
251, 256; chemical changes effected by, in 
bread, 251. 

Zoology, 175. 



ERRATA 



Page 233. — For " Boston Manual Training Course," read Boston Manual 
Training Course for Primary Grades. 

Page 244. — Omit note, and for " Cookery Lessons," read Cookery Lessons 
by Miss Ellen H. Duff, teacher in Boston School Kitchens. 

Page 248. — In line 22, for " chimney," read oven. 

Page 251. — In line 9, for " (1) Air, warmth, moisture and something sweet,'' 
read (1) Air, warmth, moisture, something sweet and some- 
thing nitrogenous. 



Page 251. — In line 39, for " CO," read C0 2 . 

Page 270. — Title should read as follows: Appendix N. Reports to the 
Commission of Visits of the Chairman to Various Manual 
Training Schools. — Rules and Regulations of Addison Street 
Industrial School. — Monograph on Domestic Economy, by 
Mrs. Ellen H. Richards. — Photographs of Manual Training 
Courses, as described on page 313. 

Page 270. — " Equipment and Cost of Cookery School" should be in Appendix 
M. 

Page 271. — "Equipment and Cost of Kindergarten and Sewing School" 
should be in Appendix M. 



REPORT. 



To the Honorable the Senate and the House of Representatives of Massa- 
chusetts. 

The Commissioners appointed to investigate the existing sys- 
tems of manual training and industrial education, and to report 
the results of their investigations with such recommendations as 
may seem best to them, respectfully submit their report. 

The General Court of the year 1891 passed the following 
resolve : — 

Resolved, That the governor appoint a commission, to consist 
of three persons, who are hereby instructed to investigate the 
existing systems of manual training and industrial education, with 
special reference to the question whether any existing system of 
manual training or industrial education, or any modification 
thereof, can be adopted with advantage in any of the public 
schools of this Commonwealth. The commissioners herein pro- 
vided for shall serve without compensation, but shall be allowed 
for all expenses actually incurred in the performance of their 
official duties such a sum as the governor, with the advice and 
consent of the council, shall approve, which shall be paid out of 
the treasury of the Commonwealth ; and they shall report the 
results of their investigations, with such recommendations as may 
seem best to them, to the next general court. [Approved June 
9, 1891 . 

In July, 1891, His Excellency Governor William E. Russell 
appointed as members of the Commission Mrs. Louisa P. Hop- 
kins, Mr. Edwin P. Seaver and Mr. George E. McNeill, who 
qualified soon afterwards, and held their first meeting in August. 



4: MANUAL TKATNESTG AND 

Mrs. Hopkins was made the chairman and Mr. Seaver the secre- 
tary of the Commission. 

A plan of work, readily suggested by circumstances, was 
marked out and adopted. The field of investigation was divided 
among the members in a manner to suit the individual interest, 
experience and opportunities for observation of each one ; but all 
information gathered and conclusions formed by each were to be 
submitted to the others for consideration before being adopted as 
matter for the final report. Thus the division of the field of 
investigation was not to imply a divided responsibility in regard 
to the recommendations ultimately submitted. 

Mr. Seaver was given manual training for boys in high schools 
and in the older classes of the grammar schools. To Mrs. Hop- 
kins was assigned for investigation the manual training for both 
boys and girls in kindergartens, in primary schools and in the 
younger classes of the grammar schools ; also manual training for 
girls — including particularly sewing, dressmaking and cooking — 
in the older classes of the grammar schools ; also industrial train- 
ing in the so-called "vacation schools." A consideration of the 
whole subject as related to labor interests and to the social and 
industrial questions of the day was committed to Mr. McNeill. 

Meetings of the Commission were held for the purpose of 
taking the testimony of persons whose special knowledge and 
experience would aid the Commissioners in reaching the best 
conclusions. The more interesting and important parts of this 
testimony are printed in the Appendices to this report. (See 
Appendices I, J and K.) 

The work of collecting books, reports and other printed 
matter relating to manual training ; of corresponding with 
teachers, officials and other persons practically engaged with 
the subject ; and of visiting schools in which the new instruc- 
tion could be witnessed in actual operation, — was carried on, 
so far as the time at the command of the several Commis- 
sioners permitted, during the last four months of the year 
1891. But it became evident before the beginning of the 
General Court in 1892 that an adequate report could not be 
made in due season. The Commissioners felt unprepared to 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 5 

meet even their own moderate expectations, — to say nothing 
of doing full justice to the large subject that had been 
intrusted to their consideration. Their investigations had been 
far too limited, and were still unfinished. 

A sufficient reason for this failure to be ready at the 
appointed time with a complete report was to be found in the 
fact that the Commissioners were very busy persons, who 
could command, aside from their regular duties, only the odds 
and ends of their time for the work of the Commission. 

Feeling that this reason would be recognized, the Commis- 
sioners decided to make a brief report of progress, and to 
suggest that the time for rendering a final report be extended 
one year. The committee on education, to whom this sugges- 
tion was made, reported thereon favorably, and the following 
resolve was passed : — 

Resolved, That the commissioners appointed to investigate the 
existing systems of manual training and industrial education, in 
accordance with the provisions of chapter one hundred and six of 
the resolves of the year eighteen hundred and ninety-one, be 
instructed to continue said investigation, and report the results 
thereof, with such recommendations as may seem best to them, to 
the next general court. The commissioners shall serve without 
compensation, but for expenses actually incurred in the perform- 
ance of their official duties the sum of one thousand dollars, in 
addition to that already appropriated, shall be allowed and paid 
out of the treasury of the Commonwealth. [Approved May 17, 
1892. 

The Commissioners have pursued their inquiries down to the 
present time, and now submit a final report, with such recom- 
mendations as have seemed best. 



6 MANUAL TKAINING AND 



PART I. 



By EDWIN P. SEAVER. 



The Recent History of Manual Training and Industrial 

Education. 

The two phrases " manual training " and "industrial education " 
are often used the one for the other, as if they denoted the same 
thing. In a general way they do Suggest the same thing, yet 
under different aspects, and with some meaning attached to each 
not carried by the other. Thus the occupations of the kindergarten 
and the hand-craft taught to young children in the schools are not 
most aptly described as industrial education ; nor, on the other 
hand, would the instruction given in a trade school or in appren- 
ticeship be fully covered by the term manual training ; and yet 
there is in all such instruction, from that given the youngest to 
that given the oldest pupils, much that is identical in purpose 
and in effect. 

Recognizing this identity, we may nevertheless conveniently 
observe a certain distinction between the phrases in question ; 
understanding by manual training any instruction in manual work 
designed to improve the intellectual powers of the worker, and by 
industrial education the instruction necessary to produce the kinds 
and degrees of skill needed for the exercise of particular trades or 
industries. 

These two purposes, the one educational and the other economic, 
are clearly not inconsistent with each other in theory, nor does 
one exclude the other in practice. Both can be and are subserved 
by the same school or by the same course of instruction. For 
example, there is good intellectual training to be had in the learn- 
ing of trades for purely industrial ends, if the methods of instruc- 
tion be logical and well adapted to their purpose. On the other 
hand, the industrial value of manual training is not to be ignored 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 7 

merely because its chief aim happens to be the development of 
general intellectual power. Indeed, it may be observed that most 
of the existing systems of manual instruction exhibit a double pur- 
pose, partly educational and partly economic, the one or the other 
predominating, according to the ages or other circumstances of the 
pupils. So, too, among the arguments that have been advanced 
in support of manual training as a branch of public instruction 
there are some which allege its disciplinary value and others 
which lay stress on its industrial utility. There is good ground 
for both these lines of argument, the validity of neither impairing 
that of the other. 

The educational theory sought to be realized through manual 
training is no new theory, nor is it now for the first time engaging 
general attention. It has been a theme with educational writers 
from Luther and Comenius down to the present time, and there 
are to be found in the books frequent passages which recognize the 
value of manual work in the education of youth, — even of youth 
whose situations in after life would preclude their using their 
acquired skill for industrial ends. Thus has the learning of trades 
been prescribed in the education of princes. Rousseau would have 
Emile learn a trade, that his pupil might acquire a more valid title 
of nobility than any he might inherit from ancestors. Pestalozzi 
resorted to manual training with the vagabond children he collected 
in his schools, believing it to be one important means of educating 
the poorer classes. Locke, in writing of the education of gentle- 
men's sons, pointed out some practical advantages to be gained 
from manual work by boys passing through the usual course of 
book instruction ; the chief of which were the promotion of bodily 
health by physical exercise and the mental relaxation brought 
about by change of employment. But in the writings of Froebel 
may be found the most satisfactory statement of the reasons for 
regarding manual training as an essential factor in the right edu- 
cation of all children. 

Froebel's idea was that of a full, all-sided education, reaching 
every element of the child's being, utilizing every wholesome 
influence from his surroundings, and leading him ultimately to 
clear knowledge and conscious efficiency in all relations of life. 



8 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

For this purpose all ranges of thought and feeling were to be 
opened, and all impulses to activity brought under the intelligent 
and orderly control of the will. Even the spontaneous play of 
childhood might under proper guidance accomplish definite edu- 
cational results. Hence the kindergarten, the games and occupa- 
tions of which early brought the child into intelligent sympathy 
with the busy human life going on around him. Later came 
positive instruction in the occupations of the household, the 
garden or the field, and in the trades of the workshops. The 
instructor in these things might be either the parent or the 
school teacher, and the place might be at home or in school ; 
but in either case the process and the result were to be counted as 
educational, no less than were the study and mastery of book 
knowledge to be so counted. And the reason, stated in Froebel's 
words, was that "lessons through and by work, through and 
from life, are by far the most impressive and intelligible, and 
most continuously and intensely progressive both in themselves 
and in their effect on the learner. Notwithstanding this, children 
— mankind, indeed — are at present too much and too variously 
concerned with aimless and purposeless pursuits, and too little 
with work. Children and parents consider the activity of actual 
work so much to their disadvantage, and so unimportant for 
their future conditions in life, that educational institutions should 
make it one of their most constant endeavors to dispel this 
delusion. The domestic and scholastic education of our time 
leads children to indolence and laziness ; a vast amount of human 
power remains undeveloped and is lost. It would be a most 
wholesome arrangement in schools to establish actual working 
hours similar to existing study hours ; and it will surely come to 
this."* 

Again in another place he says : " For boys of this age should 
have some definite domestic duties to perform. They might even 
receive regular instruction from mechanics or farmers, such as 
has been frequently given by fathers inspired by vigorous and 



* Quoted from " The Education of Man," by Friedrich Froebel. translated by W. 
N. Hailmann, New York, 1887. The original book was first published in 1826. It 
was the first volume of a proposed work which was never finished. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. \) 

active natural insight. ... It is very desirable that such boys 
should devote daily at least one or two hours to some definite 
external pursuit, some externally productive work. It is surely 
one of the greatest faults of our current school arrangements, 
especially of the so-called Latin and high schools, that the pupils 
are wholly debarred from outwardly productive work. It is futile 
to object that the boy at this age, if he is to reach a certain 
degree of skill and insight, ought to direct his whole strength 
to the learning of words, to verbal instruction, to intellectual 
culture. On the contrary, genuine experience shows that ex- 
ternal, physical, productive activity interspersed in intellectual 
work strengthens not only the body but in a very marked degree 
the mind in its various phases of development, so that the mind, 
after such a refreshing work-bath (I can find no better name), 
enters upon its intellectual pursuits with new vigor and life." * 

Froebel enumerates the subjects of the educational life of home 
and school, and groups them " in accordance with the inner needs 
of boyhood into subjects (a) of the more quiet, calm, inner life ; 
(6) of the more receptive, intro-active life ; (c) of the more 
expressive outwardly formative life." f It is this last and not 
least important phase of boyhood that manual training provides 
for. To neglect this, as is too often done, is to leave the 
education of boyhood one-sided and incomplete. 

The practical realization of Froebel's educational ideas in the 
kindergarten has made his name well known in all enlightened 
nations. What is not so well known, perhaps, is the fact that to 
the influence of his writings is due the introduction of hand-craft 
in the elementary schools of Finland and Sweden, where it is 
known as slojd (sloyd), and whence, of late, it has spread to Den- 
mark, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, England and the 
United States. 

Had Froebel been permitted to finish his great work, "The 
Education of Man," it is highly probable that the education of 
boyhood and of youth would have been worked out by him with 
the same attention to details and the same practical wisdom which 

* " The Education of Man," page 236. t " The Education of Man," page 237. 



10 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

characterized his works on the kindergarten ; and that, con- 
sequently, his authority might have become no less commanding 
for the later than it has become for the earlier years of the educa- 
tional period of life. But even in his unfinished work we may find 
the whole substance of the doctrine which supports the modern 
demand for manual training as a purely disciplinary pursuit. 

Briefly stated, his doctrine is that the human mind is creative as 
well as acquisitive ; that the child's mind cannot be developed 
according to the laws of its growth unless the creative activities 
be brought under systematic training in at least equal measure 
with the acquisitive powers ; and that both disciplines should be 
continuous from the earliest to the latest stage of education. A 
scheme of education which concerns itself with the acquisitive 
powers merely — and this has been the usual scheme of the schools 
hitherto — is fatally one-sided and partial. The needed reform 
consists in providing adequately for the creative activities. There- 
fore there should always be among the disciplines of school and 
home systematic exercises in the translation of thought into 
action, of inner mental ideas into outward material representa- 
tions. For, in the language of Froebel, "Man is developed and 
cultured toward the fulfilment of his destiny and mission, and is 
to be valued, even in boyhood, not only by what he receives and 
absorbs from without, but much more by what he puts out and un- 
folds from himself. Experience and histoiy, too, teach that men 
truly and effectively promote human welfare much more by what 
they put forth from themselves than by what they may have 
acquired. Every one knows that those who truly teach gain 
steadily in knowledge and insight ; similarly, every one knows, 
for Nature herself teaches this, that the use of a force enhances 
and intensifies the force. Again, to learn a thing in life and 
through doing is much more developing, cultivating and strength- 
ening than to learn it merely through the verbal communication of 
ideas. Similarly, plastic material representation in life and 
through doing, united with thought and speech, is by far more 
developing and cultivating than the merely verbal representation 
of ideas." * 

* " The Education of Man," page 278. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 11 

To Froebel's doctrine and the zeal of his followers in applying it 
we undoubtedly owe manual training as we now have it in the kin- 
dergarten and the primary schools. To the same cause may be 
attributed the efforts now making to extend manual training, by 
means of the Swedish sloyd or other similar exercises, upwards 
toward the high school. Indeed, it is easy to see that Froebel's 
principles, carried to the full extent of their application, would 
bring manual training not only up to the high school but through 
it and even beyond. Nevertheless, we must look elsewhere for the 
immediate causes of the welcome which manual training, as a dis- 
cipline for boys of high-school age, has received of late years in 
the United States. 

The manual training which has been given place in our boys' 
high schools during the last twelve or fifteen years has a definite 
character and purpose, because originally it was designed to meet 
a specific educational want. It may be described as a course of in- 
struction in the mechanic arts; and it is to be distinguished on the 
one hand from apprenticeship and trade-school instruction, and on 
the other hand from the manual training of young children. It 
does not aim at the teaching of any one trade, nor does it impart 
a merely superficial acquaintance with many trades ; but it gives 
a thorough course of instruction, both theoretical and practical, in 
the principal operations of all mechanical trades. These princi- 
pal operations of the mechanical trades are what the term mechanic 
arts denotes. These are few, while the trades in which they find 
their applications are many; therefore the "mechanic arts," and 
not " trades," are the proper foundation for a course of instruc- 
tion having an educational purpose. Neither is such a course 
adapted to the strength of boys under the high-school age, — 
fourteen or fifteen years, — because it is the work of men, and was 
designed for the instruction of young men. 

The young men for whom this method of instruction in the 
mechanic arts was first devised were students in civil and mechan- 
ical engineering. These students needed objective practical 
instruction in the principles of the trades with which as engineers 
they would have to do. The abstract and theoretical instruction 
usually given was insufficient, and often left the engineer in an 



12 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

awkward position of inferiority relatively to the skilled workmen 
under his direction. To attempt to gain this practical knowledge 
by learning all the trades in the ordinary way of apprenticeship 
would consume far too much time, and might, as experience had 
shown, leave the principles obscured in multitudinous and com- 
plicated details. What needed to be done was just what had been 
done with other arts and sciences in order to make them fit 
subjects for intellectual discipline ; namely, to separate principles 
from details, basing instruction exclusively on the principles, and 
retaining only enough of the details to serve the purposes of 
illustration. To do this and at the same time to make the in- 
struction objective and practical was nothing more nor less than 
applying to the mechanic arts the laboratory (workshop) method 
of instruction, — a method which has revolutionized instruction 
in chemistry, physics and other sciences within the last forty 
years. 

It was in the Imperial Technical School at Moscow, Russia, 
that this laboratory method of instruction was first successfully 
applied to the mechanic arts. " In 1868," says M. Victor Della- 
Vos, the director, " the school council considered it indispensable, 
in order to secure the systematical teaching of elementary practi- 
cal work, as well as for the more convenient supervision of the 
pupils while practically employed, to separate entirely the school 
workshops from the mechanical works in which the orders from 
private individuals are executed, admitting pupils to the latter 
only when they have perfectly acquired the principles of practical 
labor. By the separation alone of the school workshops from the 
mechanical works, however, the principal aim was far from being 
attained. It was found necessary to work out such a method of 
teaching the elementary principles of mechanical art as, firstly, 
should demand the least possible length of time for their acquire- 
ment ; secondly, should increase the facility of the supervision of 
the gradationary employment of the pupils ; thirdly, should impart 
to the study itself of practical work the character of a sound 
systematical acquirement of knowledge ; and, fourthly and lastly, 
should facilitate the demonstration of the progress of every pupil 
at every stated time. ... In the year 1870, at the exhibi- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 13 

tion of manufacturers at St. Petersburg, the school exhibited its 
method of teaching mechanical arts, and from that time they have 
been introduced into all the technical schools of Russia. . . . 
And now [at the Paris Exposition in 1878] we present our sys- 
tem of instruction, not as a project, but as an accomplished fact, 
confirmed by a long experience of ten years of success in its 
results." * 

Two years before the Paris Exposition, at Philadelphia in 
1876, M. Delia- Vos had exhibited substantially the same system 
of mechanic arts instruction, showing the tools and illustrating 
the exercises by complete series of students' shop work. There 
were men with receptive minds at Philadelphia, for in America 
as well as in Russia had been felt the want of a scientific 
method of teaching the mechanic arts in technological schools. 
Among others, Prof. John D. Runkle, at that time president 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, saw and studied 
this Russian exhibit. Immediately on his return home he 
recommended to the corporation of the Institute that the 
courses in civil and mechanical engineering in that institution 
be completed by adding to existing provisions a series of 
instruction shops, in which should be taught all the mechanic 
arts which young engineers needed to learn. By vote of the 
corporation, Aug. 17, 1876, the department of the Institute 
since known as the School of Mechanic Arts was established. 
The same step was taken a little later, June 6, 1879, by 
Washington University in St. Louis, at the suggestion of Prof. 
C. M. Woodward of the engineering department in that insti- 
tution. These two examples were soon followed by other 
scientific and technological schools in different parts of the 
country. Many of these latter institutions had recently come 
into existence in the several States through the aid afforded by 
the land grant act of Congress, passed in the year 1862, for the 

* Quoted from a valuable paper by Prof. John D. Runkle, on "The Manual 
Element in Education," printed in the forty -fifth annual report of the Massachusetts 
Board of Education, page 138. This paper gives a full description of the Mechanic 
Arts School in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; also some account of the 
Imperial Technical School at Moscow, and of some other European schools of a 
similar character. 



14 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

purpose of aiding the States to establish colleges in which should 
be taught agriculture, the mechanic arts and military drill. Speak- 
ing generally, the instruction in agriculture had been carried on in 
these institutions with encouraging success ; but the same could 
hardly be said of the instruction in the mechanic arts. This 
had not emancipated itself from bondage to details, had not 
advanced beyond miscellaneous trade learning. The Russian 
method of shop instruction came, therefore, as a promising solu- 
tion of a most troublesome problem. As such it has been 
welcomed and appreciated ; and it has spread widely among the 
technological and scientific schools (including the agricultural 
colleges) of the country since its first introduction at Boston and 
at St. Louis.* 

This first step was followed soon by a second. The shop in- 
struction designed for young men, students of engineering, was at 
once seen to be well suited to the powers, mental and physical, of 
high-school boys. Moreover, the new discipline, aside from its 
special advantages in the technical education of engineers, was 
believed to possess great value as an element in general education. 
By uniting with it a thorough course in free-hand and mechanical 
drawing and good courses in language and in science, a very 

* If it were the purpose of this report to give a full history of mechanic arts in- 
struction in the higher "educational institutions of this country, ample notice would 
be taken of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. In this institution has been carried 
on for many years with success a system of mechanic arts instruction which differs 
in some important particulars from that above referred to as the Russian shop 
instruction. In the first place, all the work of the students, save a few preliminary 
exercises, is upon things intended for sale in the market. A knowledge that his 
work is to be brought to the merciless test of commercial valuation acts upon the 
student as a strong and wholesome stimulus. In the second place, the students are 
given only the operations, the tools and the machinery which would be found in the 
best commercial machine shops of the present day. The following extract from the 
last annual catalogue presents these points clearly : — 

" The buildings contain engine room, engine and boilers, blacksmith shop, tool 
room, draughting room, painting and finishing room, and large work rooms, for 
both wood and metals, fully equipped with tools and machinery. Here the students 
in mechanical engineering spend their practice hours as apprentices, and it is found 
that the graduates in this department are as skilful mechanics as ordinary appren- 
tices who have served three years in a shop, and they have in addition the advantage 
of a solid education. This result is attained under the following conditions : — 

" 1. These shops are organized and managed as a manufacturing establishment, 
and a great variety of work is always in process of construction, in order that the 
student may constantly have the wholesome atmosphere of real business. This, 
with a determination on the part of the superintendent to maintain a high standard 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 15 

desirable high-school curriculum could be marked out which should 
prepare boys either for higher courses in science and technology 
or for the general business of life. Both the School of Mechanic 
Arts in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the 
Manual Training School in Washington University early began to 
receive boys of high-school age for the purpose of demonstrating 
the value of such a curriculum. The Institute of Technology, 
however, discontinued its experiment after a few years, not 
because it was thought to have failed, but because the trustees 
were convinced that high-school instruction in any form was a 
matter quite outside the range of their chartered powers. Besides, 
had the case been otherwise, there were not likely to be many 
parents who would willingly pay a high tuition fee, one hundred 
and fifty dollars a year, in a city where excellent high-school 
instruction could be had for nothing. Of late, therefore, the 
School of Mechanic Arts has been held strictly to its original 
purpose, that of giving workshop instruction to students of 
engineering. 

Not so with the Manual Training School at St. Louis. That 
was established on an independent basis ; and it has gone on with 
increasing success, as a boys' high school of the new type, pre- 



of workmanship, has made the progress of the students in the best methods of con- 
struction both rapid and thorough, and has proved the most effective means for 
giving them an exact knowledge of shop practice. 

" 2. The work of each student is done under the personal supervision and direc- 
tion of a skilled workman, and with the advantage of the best obtainable tools and 
machinery ; for it is as true in handicraft as in the training of the intellect that the 
best tools and appliances are not too good in instruction. 

"3. Every student receives training in drawing during the entire course. In this 
way exact knowledge of form and proportion is secured, and the students make more 
intelligent and satisfactory progress in the shop than is possible for those who have 
not had advantage of this training. Besides the general training in free-hand and 
instrumental drawing, students in this department have practice during senior year 
in making working drawings of machines, and determining the strength, dimensions 
and proper proportions of machines from numerical specifications. 

"4. The Aveekly practice is distributed so as to occupy five hours each of two 
days. Each student is required to render a strict account of these hours. The time 
thus spent serves the double purpose of practice and exercise. 

" 5. Each student advances as fast as possible, unchecked by the difficulties of 
his neighbors, or any business necessity of the shop." 

It is still a mooted question whether the products of mechanic arts instruction 
should be broken up for kindling wood and junk, as is usual when they are mere 
exercises, or should be sold in the market. The experience at Worcester seems 
strongly to support the latter conclusion. 



16 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

paring its pupils not only for higher courses in science and tech- 
nology, but also for commercial and industrial pursuits. It has 
become the model for many similar schools in all parts of the 
country. Its general character and purpose are set forth in the 
following language, quoted from the ordinance by which it was 
established: "Its object shall be instruction in mathematics, 
drawing, and the English branches of a high-school course, and 
instruction and practice in the use of tools. The tool instruction, 
as at present contemplated, shall include carpentry, wood-turning, 
pattern-making, iron chipping and filing, forge work, brazing and 
soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and such other instruc- 
tion of a similar character as may be deemed advisable to add to 
the foregoing from time to time. The students will divide their 
working hours as nearly as possible equally between mental and 
manual exercises. They shall be admitted on examination, at not 
less than fourteen years of age, and the course shall continue three 
years." 

The number of schools which have been established on this plan 
of instruction or have changed to this plan by adding to their 
former courses the mechanic arts course has become large during 
the last ten years, and is still increasing. Indeed, the rapid mul- 
tiplication of such schools constitutes one of the most remarkable 
educational phenomena of the present time. No complete list of 
these schools has been made; but we shall here mention and 
briefly describe some of the more important ones. 

In January, 1884, the Commercial Club of Chicago established 
and endowed the Chicago Manual Training School. This school, 
like its St. Louis prototype, receives substantial tuition fees from 
.its students ; but, unlike it, has no connection with a university. 
Some of its graduates pass to higher institutions, and some into 
commercial or industrial life. The school has flourished from the 
beginning ; and its success has led to the establishment of other 
schools of the same kind in Chicago, one by the Board of Educa- 
tion as a public high school, another by the wealthy Hebrews for 
boys of their race, and still another by Mr. Armour. 

While the merchants of Chicago were taking action in that city, 
the same year and month, January, 1884, the city council of 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 17 

Baltimore established the Baltimore Manual Training School. 
This is a free public school, supported wholly by public taxation, 
and is the earliest school of its kind in America. 

In the same year, too, 1884, the city of Toledo made use of a 
certain trust fund for the purpose of establishing manual training 
in connection with the public high school in that city. A large 
wing was added to the high-school building, containing instruction 
shops not only for boys to work in wood and metals at bench and 
machine, but also for girls to work at wood-carving, cooking, 
sewing and dressmaking. This seems to be the earliest instance 
of industrial education for girls in a public high school. The 
boys and girls who took the instruction in these new subjects took 
it as a clear addition to their regular high school work ; but they 
did it with enthusiasm, and the effect was to interest them more 
than formerly in the school. Observation through several years 
has ascertained the fact that many boys and girls remain in school, 
who, without opportunities for such instruction, would have 
dropped out. The girls shared with the boys the work in drawing, 
in wood-carving and in light joinery, but later in the courses they 
separated. 

The Cleveland Manual Training School originated in a small 
class in carpentry, started in February, 1885, by a teacher of 
physics in the Cleveland High School, Mr. Newton M. Anderson, 
for the benefit of some of his pupils in the high school. The 
time taken was in the afternoon, and the place was a barn. 
" Through the diligence and enthusiasm of these boys, this little 
school and the value of manual training were brought to the notice 
of some of the business men of the city. One or two meetings 
were held at which the question of the establishment of a manual 
training school in Cleveland was thoroughly discussed. It was 
decided to form a stock company with a capital of twenty-five 
thousand dollars, with which money to erect and equip a build- 
ing, and to charge a tuition fee just sufficient to cover running 
expenses." This building was opened in 1886, and pupils came 
there from the high schools of Cleveland. This arrangement con- 
tinued till 1892, and the school was known as the Cleveland 
Manual Training School. It is now discontinued, because the 



18 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Board of Education of Cleveland, having permanently established 
manual training courses in both the high schools of that city, has 
no further use, for temporary accommodations. Meanwhile, Mr. 
Anderson has secured the endowment for and established a large 
and prospering private institution in Cleveland, named the Uni- 
versity School. This school combines the features of a classical 
high school and of a manual training school, and is designed to 
give the broadest possible education to its pupils. It constitutes 
one of the most noteworthy and interesting experiments yet made . 
in the new higher education of boys. 

The Philadelphia Manual Training School, established in 1885, 
is, like the one at Baltimore, a free public high school, supported 
wholly by the public taxes. It has complete courses in the 
mechanic arts, in drawing and in the usual book studies of a 
high school. The authorities in Philadelphia believed it was 
better to set up a separate and independent school of this kind 
than to add courses in the mechanic arts to the work of existing 
high schools. That this school has successfully met an actual 
want is indicated by the fact that Philadelphia has recently 
(1892) established a similar school in another quarter of that 
city. 

Girard College early adopted mechanic arts instruction, on a 
plan devised for that institution by Professor Kunkle. The 
motive was to provide a substitute for apprenticeship, which had 
so far fallen into disuse in Philadelphia that it had become exceed- 
ingly difficult for the college authorities to place their boys where 
they might learn mechanical trades. The trustees of Girard Col- 
lege declare in one of their reports that the Russian system of 
shop instruction came to them as a most welcome and satisfactory 
solution of a very embarrassing problem.* 

The magnitude of the difficulty will be the more readily appre- 
ciated when we remember that the college has enrolled twelve 

* " Our introduction of this mechanical instruction seems almost providential, in 
view of the scarceness of apprenticeships. Up to almost the end of the year 188-i 
metal work alone was taught, and during that year only about one-third of the boys 
who left college entered into mechanical pursuits ; but of those who left during the 
year 1885, and since instruction in ordinary wood work and turning has been intro- 
duced, two-thirds have obtained work in mechanical occupation." 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 19 

hundred or more boys, ranging in age from ten to eighteen ; and 
that boys on reaching the age of eighteen are not permitted by 
the charter to remain longer in college, but must be " bound out 
as apprentices." The effectiveness of the mechanic arts instruc- 
tion now given in Girard College may be estimated from the fact, 
which we have taken pains to verify, that boys of eighteen who 
have had that instruction ten hours a week for two years are, 
as a rule, credited with two full years of time when they enter 
the machine shops at Philadelphia; so that they are placed on 
the same level with other boys who have worked in the shops two 
years the full time, say fifty hours a week. Thus it appears that 
the instruction of the mechanic arts school ten hours a week is 
equally effective with the instruction obtained in the ordinary 
apprenticeship of the shops fifty hours a week. In other words, 
the mechanic arts school is better than apprenticeship in the 
shops in the ratio of five to one. And this is the judgment, not 
of theorists nor of sentimentalists, but of hard-headed business 
men. 

Many of the promoters of manual training for boys have been 
at pains to emphasize the fact that their schools do not teach 
trades. While this is true, it is also true that their schools do 
bring their pupils a long way on towards the learning of many 
trades. And this is because the instruction is based on the 
principles underlying the trades, not on the details of the trades 
themselves. It is the result of applying the science of education 
to the learning of trades. 

Another school of the St. Louis type is the Cincinnati Technical 
School, founded in 1886 ; another, the Manual Training School of 
Denver University ; and still another, the Tulane High School, 
connected with Tulane University in New Orleans. Of the Balti- 
more and Philadelphia type are schools in "Wilmington, Del., and 
in Providence, R. I. 

The list of cities in which manual training has been added to 
the work of existing high schools includes New York, Albany, 
Eau Claire, Omaha, Carson City, Washington, Indianapolis, St. 
Paul, Minneapolis and many others. 

In Massachusetts we have the Manual Training School at 



20 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Cambridge, the gift of Mr. Frederick H. Rindge of California, 
who offered to his native city ' ' an industrial school building ready 
for use, together with a site for the same." This school, like that 
in Toledo and the first one in Cleveland, is an auxiliary to the 
public high school, receiving pupils therefrom at stated hours for 
instruction in the mechanic arts and in drawing, but itself giving 
no instruction in book studies. The high schools in Fall River 
and in Springfield have established manual training in their 
courses. 

Among the proposed high schools of the new kind may be 
mentioned the Mechanic Arts High School in Boston, the building 
for which is approaching completion,* and a new high school in 
Brookline, which, when organized, will afford an opportunity for 
the extension of the instruction now going on in the William H. 
Lincoln Grammar School in that town. 

In all the schools thus far enumerated the course of instruction 
for the boys is substantially the same, namely, joinery, wood- 
turning, wood-carving, pattern-making, moulding, casting, forg- 
ing, chipping, filing and - machine-shop practice, together with 
drawing and the book work of the ordinary high-school course. 

This course, however, should be described in minute detail, 
with suggestions as to the cost of necessary tools and equipment, 
if, as is proposed, it is to be made the basis of recommendations 
in this report. And this is the place in the report for such a 
description. It happens, however, that the writer was sent four 
years ago by the school committee of Boston to visit and carefully 
inspect most of the schools named above, that he might the better 
prepare himself to draw up a course of instruction and a plan of 
building and equipment for the proposed Mechanic Arts High 
School in that city. He is convinced that he could hardly do this 
work better now than he did it then. Therefore his " Plan for a 
Mechanic Arts High School," taken from the Boston school docu- 
ments, has been placed in the Appendix to this report for the 
information of readers who may desire knowledge of the minute 
details of the subject. (See Appendix A.) The reader is also 

* For the plans and a perspective view of this building, see Appendix A. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 21 

referred to the paper of Professor Runkle, already quoted from, 
in the forty-fifth annual report of the Massachusetts Board of 
Education, where will be found (pages 146-170) a full description 
with illustrations of the shop exercises used in the School of 
Mechanic Arts in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
For wood-cuts illustrating the exercises used in the St. Louis 
Manual Training School, see "Woodward's "Manual Training 
School." * 

For a fully illustrated course of lessons in wood-work and in 
iron-work at bench and at machine, as given in the Pennsylvania 
State College, see the very valuable report of the Industrial Edu- 
cation Commission to the Legislature of Pennsylvania, 1889. 

We have seen that manual training has a recognized place in 
the kindergarten, and that efforts more or less successful are 
making to carry it upward through the grades of the primary and 
grammar schools. We have also seen that manual training has 
been secured a place in the high-school instruction of the country. 
It remains to notice the efforts that have been made to connect 
the manual training of the high schools with that below, by work- 
ing downward through the grades of the grammar schools. 

These efforts have been made in two ways : first, by introduc- 
ing the simpler wood-working exercises of the Russian system of 
shop instruction into the upper grades of the grammar schools ; 
and, secondly, by introducing a system of wood-working which 
comes to us ready-made from Sweden, and is known as sloyd. 
It is obvious that the Russian system, which was designed for 
young men, must undergo important modifications to fit it for the 
use of city grammar-school boys. The Swedish sloyd, on the 
other hand, is already well adapted to the powers of young boys, 
because it is the outcome of long experience in Sweden, where it 
has been used to supply manual training for young boys in the 
elementary schools. The exercises of the Russian system, being 
rather difficult for boys under fourteen years of age, cannot easily 
be carried on in the lower classes of the grammar schools. The 
necessary modification, therefore, consists in substituting simpler 

* Boston, 1887. 



22 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

exercises for the more difficult ones, and then rearranging the 
whole so as to secure easy gradations and logical development. 
Only wood-working exercises with hand tools have, for the most 
part, been used in experiments with the Russian system in 
grammar schools. A noteworthy exception to this remark, how- 
ever, occurs in the case of the William H. Lincoln school in 
Brookline, where the use of some wood-working machinery takes 
place in the grammar classes, and where, probably, some work 
with metals will be given to boys below the high-school grades.* 
But, speaking generally, we assume that the use of machinery 
with power is not likely to become extensive or even considerable 
among grammar schools. Neither does it appear probable that 
metal-work exercises will be largely adopted for the training of 
young boys. 

The strong point in the Russian shop instruction lies in the 
emphasis it places on the working drawing. Every exercise must 
be worked from a drawing made by the worker himself ; and, 
moreover, each worker must take, simultaneously with his courses 
in shop work, a thorough course in draughting. The weak point 
in the Swedish sloyd is its neglect of the working drawing. At 
least, this remark is true of the sloyd as it came to us from 
Sweden. There have been some changes in the system since it 
came into this country, so that we now hear frequent mention 
made of "American sloyd." The most important of these 
changes is the adoption of the working drawing. Other changes 
relate more to details than to matters of principle. 

Both systems, the so-called Russian and the so-called Swedish, 
are now on trial in the grammar schools of Boston, and on quite a 
large scale ; but it is too early now to report the results of that trial. 
The intention of the school committee of that city is understood 
to be to continue the experiment for perhaps two years longer, in 
expectation that there may be a clear demonstration from experi- 
ence of the best means by which the wants of boys in city grammar 



* For an account of this school, by Professor Runkle, see Appendix B. Further 
information may be found in a report of the testimony given by the principal of the 
school, Mr. D. S. Farnham, Appendix C, and by Mr. Samuel T. Dutton, superintend- 
ent of schools, Appendix D. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 23 

schools can be supplied, whether by the Russian shop work or by 
the Swedish sloyd, or by some combination and outgrowth of the 
two, larger and better than either. 

Another much-debated difference between the two systems is 
found in the nature of the exercises employed. By the Swedish 
system it is required that every piece of work shall be some com- 
pleted and useful article ; but in the Russian system little or no 
regard is paid to such a requirement, the pieces of wood-work in 
the early part of the course being merely so many specimens of 
carpenters' joints. Here, evidently, is matter for interesting dis- 
cussion. But it does not lie within the purpose of this report to 
engage in such a discussion, for the reason, chiefly, that experience 
alone can demonstrate the superiority of this or that system, and 
experience in this country is hardly yet ripe enough to be conclu- 
sive. 

What, however, our experience has proved appears to be that 
wood-working in some form or other, but chiefly with hand tools 
at the bench and without the use of much machinery, is a form of 
manual training well suited to the wants of boys in city grammar 
schools ; that girls as well as boys can receive the instruction with 
excellent results ; and that the instruction can be given by the 
regular teachers of the primary and grammar classes, after a 
suitable course of preparatory training, even though these teachers 
are women wholly inexperienced previously in the use of tools. 

This last result has been not a little surprising to many, al- 
though enthusiastic sloydists claim that it is the most natural thing 
in the world. Either way, the result is equally welcome ; for it 
goes far towards answering the question, Who will be the teachers 
of wood-working if that branch of instruction is to be generally 
adopted in the elementary schools ? The point of this question 
lies just here : so long as a new branch of instruction, like wood- 
working, seems likely to require a corps of special teachers in 
addition to the regular teachers, and at considerable additional ex- 
pense, people are likely to object to its introduction, or, if already 
in, to throw it out when economy is the cry ; but if the regular 
teachers can do the work with no more assistance from experts 
than may be necessary at first to give them a preparatory training, 



24 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

then the most serious ground for objection falls away. It is par- 
ticularly interesting, therefore, to observe the fact that a consider- 
able number of women, primary and grammar school teachers in 
Boston and other places, have taken the course of instruction in 
sloyd given by Mr. Larsson in Boston, and have since become 
teachers of sloyd to grammar-school children, — not only boys, 
but in some instances girls too. 

The extent to which wood-working has been adopted in the 
elementary schools of the United States has not been precisely as- 
certained, because the information contained in printed reports is 
not always full and explicit enough to show just what is meant by 
the general statement that "manual training" has been "intro- 
duced into the public schools." Sometimes the meaning is merely 
that drawing has been made a part of the course of study ; or 
that paper-folding, clay-modelling and card-board construction 
have been included in the primary school work ; or that sewing 
has been taught to the girls. Again, the meaning may be that 
wood-working at bench and lathe, but not the full course in the 
mechanic arts, has been adopted in the high school or in the upper 
classes of the grammar schools. It is, however, certain that wood- 
working has been adopted more or less extensively in the grammar 
schools of Washington, D. C, New Haven, Conn., St. Paul, 
Minn., Montclair, N. J., New York City, Jamestown, N. Y., and 
of Boston, Brookline, Springfield, Northampton, Waltham and 
Salem in Massachusetts. It is also to be noted that the lively 
demand for good sloyd teachers indicates a wide-spread interest 
in the subject. 

There are several State normal schools which, like that at New 
Britain, Conn., have adopted wood-working, not only that their 
pupils may understand the principles of manual training as a 
metJwd in education, but also acquire the skill to construct the sim- 
ple apparatus they may afterwards need in their teaching. Two 
normal schools in Massachusetts, that at Salem and that at Bridge- 
water, have done this. For a description of the course in the 
latter school, by the principal, Mr. Boyden, see Appendix E. 

A good general idea of the wood-working now experimentally 
carried on in the grammar schools of Boston may be gathered from 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 25 

the representations given in Appendix F. Plates I., II., III. and 
IV. show a graded course in wood-work, covering four years, 
drawn mainly from the Russian shop work. This course was 
arranged by Mr. Frank M. Leavitt, and has been taught by him 
for two or three years past in the Eliot School at Jamaica Plain. 
Plate V. shows the room with the benches and tools. Plates VI. 
and VII. show a four-years course in Swedish sloyd for grammar 
schools, taught by Mr. Gustaf Larsson at the Appleton Street 
School in Boston. Plates VIII., IX. and X. give views of the 
models chosen by Mr. B. F. Eddy for his course of instruction at 
the North Bennet Street Industrial School in Boston. Plate XI. 
shows the room with a class of boys at work ; Plate XII., the class 
at drawing; and Plate XIII., the class gathered for a demonstra- 
tion. Mr. Eddy has contributed a detailed statement of his man- 
ner of teaching the exercises illustrated by his models. (See 
Appendix G.) 

For the lower classes of grammar schools something has been 
done in devising wood- working exercises suitable for young pupils. 
The " knife work" practised in the Springfield schools consists of 
exercises in cutting thin wood to prescribed forms and dimensions. 
The pieces are afterwards put together with glue or brads, to make 
various miniature articles or toys.* This same work has been 
done in the Lowell School in Boston, by boys in the two lowest 
grammar classes. It can be done in an ordinary school-room with 
no more change of equipment than merely placing a board cover 
on the top of the ordinary desk. The tools are few and simple. 

Another course of wood-work for young grammar pupils is used 
in the schools at Northampton. Its author, Rev. Frederick A. 
Hinckley, has kindly furnished a description with illustrations, 
which will be found in the Appendix. (See Appendix H.) The 
chief merit of this course, aside from its simplicity, practicability 
and inexpensiveness, appears to be its close connection and 
coordination with drawing. It is in itself an admirable course in 
form study, carried on by the best of methods, that of form 
making. 

* For the whole course of wood-working, including the " knife work," in the 
Springfield schools, see Appendix I. 



26 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Thus far our report has dealt chiefly with manual training for 
boys. That for girls and for young children will be treated fully 
in another part. We conclude this part with a brief consideration 
of the question why it is that manual training has become so wide- 
spread and so popular during the last dozen years. 

It is certain that the writings of educational philosophers have 
not kindled the existing interest in the subject, for these have been 
published and read for many years. Neither can we attribute 
much to the influence of educators, — meaning by this term the 
class of persons engaged in the practical administration of educa- 
tional affairs, — because their opinions have been widely various. 
Some have been as conspicuous for opposing as others have for 
advocating this new discipline, while very many have remained 
uncommitted. 

To some extent we may attribute the favorable reception manual 
training has had to its promise of becoming an acceptable substi- 
tute for apprenticeship, now fallen into merited disuse ; or to its 
opening the way to industrial employments for the many whom 
circumstances now exclude ; or to its great attractiveness for active 
boys ; or to its excellence as physical exercise ; or to its answer- 
ing the somewhat vague demand for "something practical" in 
education ; or to its inculcating " the true dignity of labor" and 
" respect for the laborer." Each of these causes has, undoubtedly, 
contributed something, and the total effect has been considerable. 
But there is a more powerful cause than any of these, or all of 
these together. 

Among the deep-rooted convictions cherished by New England 
people and their descendants everywhere, none is more firmly held 
than this, — that learning how to work and forming habits of 
industry are indispensable elements in the right education of every 
boy or girl. This belief early found expression in the laws, as 
thus in Massachusetts in the year 1642 : — 

This Court, taking into consideration the great neglect in many 
parents and masters in training up their children in learning and 
labor, and other imployments which may bee profitable to the 
common wealth, do hereupon order and decree, that in every 
towne the chosen men appointed for managing the prudenciall 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 27 

affaires of the same shall hencefourth stand charged with the care 
of the redresse of this evill, so as they shalbee liable to bee pun- 
ished or fined for the neglect thereof, . . . and for this end they, 
or the greater part of them, shall have power to take accompt 
from time to time of their parents and masters, and of their chil- 
dren, concerning their calling and impliment of their children, 
especiallity of their ability to read and understand the principles 
of religion and the capital lawes of the country, . . . and they 
shall have power (with consent of any Court or magistrates) to put 
fourth apprentice the children of such as they shall find not to bee 
able and fit to imply and bring them up, nor shall take course to 
dispose of them themselves ; and they are to take care that such 
as are set to keep cattle bee set to some other impliment withall, 
as spinning up on the rock, kniting, weveing tape, etc., . . . and 
for their better performance of this trust committed to them, they 
may divide the towne amongst them, appointing to every of the 
said townsmen a certeine number of families to have speciall over- 
sight of ; they are also to provide that a sufficient quantity of 
materialls, as hempe, flaxe, etc., may bee raised in their severall 
townes, and tooles and implements provided for working out the 
same ; and for their assistance in this so needfull and beneficiall 
impliment, if they meet with any difficulty or opposition which 
they cannot well master by their owne power, they may have 
recourse to some of the magistrates, who shall take such course for 
their help and incuragment as the occasion shall require, according 
to iustice.* 

And the influence of this belief may be traced through subse- 
quent legislation down to the present day. How fully the domes- 
tic life, manners and customs of New England people exemplify 
the excellence of this doctrine of "learning and labor" in the 
education of children needs not here to be told. The story may 
be read on every page of New England history. 

Thus do we see that the plain common-sense of the people has 
followed in practice the doctrine of the philosophers, that educa- 
tion by and through work — outwardly productive and useful 
work of the hands — is essential to the right intellectual and 
moral training of children, essential to the right training for citi- 
zenship in a free State. 

* "Records of Massachusetts,'* volume II., pages 8 and 9, printed, Boston, 1853. 



28 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Until within a generation the conditions of New England life 
were such as to permit full scope to this education by and through 
work. No better kindergarten was ever invented than the New 
England farm, provided only the conditions of life were not so 
desperately hard as to leave the mother no time to superintend the 
occupations of her children. For the growing boy there were the 
occupations of the field, the woods and the garden ; and rainy 
days there were the tools in the tool room ; or, if these failed to 
interest him, there was the neighbor's shop, where he might begin 
to learn his chosen trade. The wise father took good care that 
these means of education were properly used. All this answers 
precisely to the ideal circumstances pictured by Froebel in his 
" Education of Man." The home was to co-operate with the 
school in the education of the boy, taking more particular charge 
of the training of his active powers and of his religious life, while 
leaving the book studies to the school. 

But railroads and factories have wrought a profound alteration 
in New England life. The conditions are all changed. Peo- 
ple have gathered themselves into great and growing cities ; the 
farms are deserted ; of gardens there are few ; and the neighbors 
who had workshops for their various crafts are now employed 
in great manufacturing establishments. Our population has be- 
come largely urbanized. The city father, however wise, however 
disposed to carry on the education of his boys " by and through 
work," finds insurmountable obstacles in his way. His own work 
is seldom such that he can share it with his boys ; the ' ' neighbor's 
shop " is hard to find; the " manufacturing establishment " takes 
no apprentices. He could perhaps provide tools and a tool room 
in his own house, were he at home enough to teach their use ; but 
even then the boys would lack the time ; for the public school 
claims their attendance forty weeks in the year, and can by law 
exact thirty up to the age of fourteen. So he is compelled, by 
the very circumstances of city life, to hand over the whole busi- 
ness of education to the schools. The schools must take care of 
the education " by and through work," or it will not be cared for 
at all. Meanwhile, the mother finds the ideal kindergarten of rural 
life replaced by the city sidewalk and the paved back yard. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 29 

Fortunate is she if she can get a small heap of clean sand for her 
little ones to play in. City children are like plants in a green- 
house or animals in cages, developing abnormally under abnor- 
mal conditions. 

Thus has come to exist in all cities and large towns a profound 
educational want. All the people feel it ; some see it and under- 
stand it ; but heretofore little has been done to relieve it. The 
city school, with its forty weeks of term time, has merely filled 
with more book learning the gap left by the departed home 
employments. The traditional balance between "learning and 
labor " has been upset, and " learning " has taken the whole time. 
True, something has been done in one city or another towards 
providing substitutes for the lost home training. Sewing and 
cooking have become branches of school work for girls in a few 
places ; and manual training in other forms is just now finding its 
place in the schools. These instances, however, are but slight 
exceptions to the general statement that until quite recently the 
schools have offered no substitute for that home training which 
children have lost in their change from country to city life. The 
schools have done nothing, because the way has not been clear ; 
nor has there been, until lately, any strong desire to make it so. 
Meanwhile, the sense of something lost or wanting has been 
abiding and pervasive, although somewhat vague and inarticulate. 
Like certain conditions of the human body, it declares itself by 
symptoms. The ever-ready disposition to criticise the city 
schools for not turning out such young men and women as the 
country schools used to turn out, or as the schools of the same 
city used to turn out fifty or sixty years ago, is but a symptom of 
the underlying uneasiness. The same is true of the fussy desire 
for " something practical" in education. The numerous fathers 
who know not what to do with their boys, and the increasing mul- 
titudes of boys growing up in the cities with little learning and 
less labor, do but aggravate these symptoms. 

Now, it is because people see or think they see in manual train- 
ing a means of repairing the loss and relieving the want by which 
they have felt so long oppressed that they have so heartily wel- 
comed this new means of education. If people have neglected 



30 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

awhile that excellent old doctrine of " learning and labor," and 
have experienced the ill consequences of such neglect, the return 
to sound practice will not be slow nor half way, but quick and 
complete. It seems as if the hearty popular approval with which 
manual training has been received in these recent years might be 
the harbinger of such a happy return. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 31 



PAKT II 



Br LOUISA PARSONS HOPKINS. 



Elementary Manual Training. 

While manual and industrial training was entering the upper 
schools through the workshops and laboratories, the kindergarten 
had gradually introduced a similar motive at the beginning of 
school education. Froebel had announced his philosophy of the 
child's development, and formulated the kindergarten as a natural 
and logical method for the child's earliest instruction. Froebel had 
adopted Pestalozzi's system of object teaching, and consummated 
it with his own peculiar doctrine of "learning by doing." The 
" gifts " which he provided for the child's observational use were 
supplemented by what he called " occupations," intended to com- 
plete observation by taDgible representation. Manual training, 
therefore, had been growing simultaneously from both extremes of 
the curriculum, and the present problem is in connecting and inter- 
relating the work from both extremes. 

The kindergarten was presented to the world by Froebel about 
fifty years ago. It was introduced into this country by Miss 
Elizabeth P. Peabody and Mrs. Horace Mann a little more than 
thirty years ago. It was planted in Boston by Mrs. Pauline 
Agassiz Shaw nearly twenty years ago, supported and fostered by 
her personal enterprise and resources, and her sixteen kindergartens 
with their equipments and trained teachers were given by her to 
the city of Boston in 1887. 

Miss Susan Blow did a similar work for the city of St. Louis, 
and Miss Anna Hallo well for Philadelphia. The kindergarten is 
now the accepted beginning of school education in the educational 
centres of this country and Europe. 

Kindergarten Manual Training. 
The occupations of the kindergarten are arranged for the sys- 
tematic development of the child's powers, based upon the child's 



32 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

natural activities ; they train the sense of touch to nice observa- 
tion and the hand to careful and skilful manipulation for the tan- 
gible representation of all the ideas of the mind and the expres- 
sion of all the emotions of the soul. In this training of the hand 
the various senses are also educated ; the eye especially learns to 
see more exactly and completely, so as to obtain the knowledge 
requisite to truthful representation in hand-work. Accurate ex- 
pression is the test of accurate knowledge. Accurate and com- 
plete perception is essential to tangible expression. 

The kindergarten occupations are connected with what are 
called "the gifts;" the results of observation as developed by 
the gifts are recorded by actual representation in "the occupa- 
tions." The occupations are also designed to lead up to the chief 
industries of life, as well as to the study of nature and the 
development of art. These occupations may therefore be regarded 
not only as the completion of observation but as the beginning of 
training for industry, science and art ; and in this respect they 
give the three-fold activities of the child their natural develop- 
ment, and may be taken as a model for all subsequent courses of 
manual training. 

In discussing the significance of the kindergarten gifts and 
occupations, we may say generally that the gifts are meant to aid 
the child in classifying his observations concerning the form or 
appearance of things, and to serve him in his efforts to gain 
knowledge of things. The occupations, on the other hand, 
are to serve him in his efforts to express his ideas of things, 
and to apply his knowledge to the realization of a definite 
purpose. 

The kindergarten occupations as laid down by Froebel are : — 

1. Building with blocks ; card-board construction. 

2. Making forms and designs with sticks, tablets or rings. 

3. Folding and cutting paper into geometrical forms. 

4. "Weaving with paper or other material. 

5. Sewing on perforated cards. 

6. Drawing, as a language for expressing form ideas. 

7. Modelling in clay and other plastic material. 

8. Gardening. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 33 

These occupations may be scheduled according to their relations, 
as follows : — 

A. Bodies or solids ; 

1. Block building. 

2. Clay modelling. 

3. Card-board construction. 

B. Surfaces : 

1. Paper folding, cutting and pasting. 

2. Tablet laying. 

3. Painting. 
C Lines : 

1. Stick laying. 

2. Weaving. 

3. Embroidery. 

4. Drawing. 
D. Points : 

1. Bead stringing. 

2. Peas, shells, etc. (arrangement of ) . 

3. Perforating. 

With the study of solids the child is helped to apprehend the 
distinct individuality of things ; the study of surface helps him to 
classify things on the basis of their shape ; the study of lines leads 
him to counting, measuring and the apprehension of direction and 
proportion ; the study of points leads him to understand position 
and relation. 

The clay modelling enables the child to record his observation 
of the most delicate deviations from the typical shapes, and leads 
him to an appreciation of type forms. The block building and 
card-board work develop his constructive talents ; the paper 
folding and cutting stimulate his inventive power, and prepare 
him to record with brush or crayon the products of memory or 
imagination, and, with the weaving, embroidery and drawing, 
develop his artistic tendency. 

It is plain also that the proper use of the material of the 
occupations results in moral power, because it implants in the 
child habits of industry, clearness, accuracy and harmony, which 
in attitude and motive influence his whole development, and co- 
ordinate him with his fellows in social and benevolent organiza- 
tions, so as to make him a factor for good in the community of 



34 MANUAL TRAENTXG AKD 

child life. In all these occupations the individuality and creative 
power of the child should have full scope. They may be connected 
with observation of nature and life or with the imagination and 
feeling, yet they should be conducted according to the legitimate 
growth of the child's powers, and, in the main, according to a 
prescribed sequence founded on the great laws of educational 
philosophy. The child should be led from the easy to the difficult, 
from the simple to the complex, from the known to the unknown, 
in all manual as well as mental training. The exercises must be 
for the child, not the child for the exercises or system. Whatever 
is given to the child to do should be adapted to his interest, to his 
stage of progress and to his relations with life ; it should advance 
him in knowledge and skill, should minister to his manual dexter- 
ity and creative instinct, as well as to his desire to communicate 
to others what he has acquired, and become useful and helpful to 
all ; in other words, it should involve the activities of the body, 
the mind and the soul in their natural relations and order of 
growth. 

Building is one of the most natural and pleasurable occupations 
of a child ; it leads him to constructive rather than to destructive 
work, to skill in handling, balancing and arranging parts, to 
mechanical contrivance, to unity of design, to an apprehension of 
proportion and symmetry ; it teaches him unconsciously many of 
the laws of physics, gives play to his imagination and inventive 
faculties, and involves a study of material as well as of forces. 

Laying of sticks, etc., leads to decorative design and the rep- 
resentation of geometric and natural forms ; it cultivates a percep- 
tion of planes and lines, or edges and faces, and may be utilized in 
the study of the geometric outlines of objects, so far as such study 
can be properly carried with the little child. It is also suggestive 
of the study of number and place. 

Paper folding and cutting gives skill of fingers and accuracy of 
measurement, and, combined with color, allows opportunity for a 
study of color, form and proportion, which is essentially artistic 
in its tendency. 

Weaving involves color, careful hand-work, a knowledge of one 
of the most fundamental and inclusive industries, with opportunity 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 35 

for a study of material and the applications of the art to various 
material. It may also be combined with color and design, so as 
to make the industry artistic, and educate the sense of harmony 
and proportion. 

Sewing cultivates precision of the eye and hand, as well as the 
sense of regularity and measurement. It should, in the kinder- 
garten, involve color and form, and be used as a kind of drawing 
and method of decorative design. It develops the moral nature, 
by training to habits of neatness, order, economy and helpfulness, 
as well as by appealing to the sense of beauty. 

Drawing and modelling should go hand in hand throughout 
all the manual training of the kindergarten. In the study of 
nature and of the type forms presented by nature and illus- 
trated by " the gifts" of Froebel, the drawing should be en- 
tirely with the free hand, and should be used chiefly as a means 
of thought expression by the child. Drawing and modelling not 
only train to manual dexterity, they also offer the readiest and 
freest means through which the creative feeling of the child can 
find expression ; they are capable of constant application to every 
branch of study ; they are connected with all industries ; they 
develop the aesthetic sense and powers, and are suited to ever} 7 
grade of school work and every stage of education. In the 
kindergarten modelling the free fingers only should be used, and 
in drawing the pencil and brush should be used by the free hand 
only, other tools being postponed to the primary school. 

Gardening leads the child to a love of plant life and to 
companionship with nature, as well as to healthful out-of-door 
occupation. Every kindergarten should have a garden-plot ; but 
where this is impracticable, gardening may be carried on in the 
school-room by means of window-gardening or a sand box. It is 
one of the most delightful kinds of work to the child, and exer- 
cises in full sympathy and harmony all parts of his three-fold 
nature. It should never be neglected in the kindergarten. It 
may involve careful observation of processes, as well as forms ; 
the hand-work of pressing, mounting, drawing and coloring of 
plant forms ; the original study of plants in their conditions, their 
habits, their parts, their organism, their beauties, their processes, 



36 MAXUAL TRAINING AXD 

laws of growth, relations with nature and life, as well as their 
expression of constant creative activity in nature ; they lead to a 
recognition of the fatherhood of the Creator, and the sustaining 
love and power above and within the material universe for each 
individual life, thus developing in the highest direction the child's 
growing powers. 

Although it may not be necessary to vary such a course of 
occupations as Froebel has laid down for the kindergarten, 
nevertheless there should not be an unyielding adherence to it 
under all conditions and circumstances. The purpose is higher 
than the means, and whatever is natural and educative must be 
regarded as legitimate in the training of the child before the 
primary-school age. Sympathy and original appreciation of the 
philosophy of the child's growth must determine the plan to some 
extent for every kindergartner. The child should be prepared by 
the kindergartner for more distinct lines of study and more 
concentrated application of the will and purpose to achieve in all 
branches of mental and manual training. The kindergarten must 
reach upward toward the primary-school subjects and method of 
study, and the primary school should vitalize its work by the 
adoption, to a great extent, of kindergarten methods. The 
doctrine of " learning by doing" should be applied to every line 
of study, and thus the kindergarten and primary work be an 
unbroken series of progressions. The kindergarten, as in most 
American schools, should be held in a room by itself, but in a 
building with the primary school, so that it may become familiar 
as a preparation for that grade. In the Board Schools of London 
and Liverpool, which were visited in the interests of this Com- 
mission, the kindergarten was so interwoven with the infant 
school that it was hard to see where one ended and the other 
began. The manual training of the English kindergartens f is 
rather industrial in motive and mechanical in method, with a 
tendency to commercial values. Much of the weaving is with 
straw or twine, and without color. In the Paris kindergartens 
there was discerned a more artistic foundation and tendency. 
Objects of use are more generally ornamented, materials are of 
a kind to admit of more artistic rendering, — as, for example, 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 37 

weaving with worsted is more common than with paper, as 
the fabric can be more easily ornamented, and the results 
enter more readily into harmonious combination and design, — 
also, the color tones are finer and more perfectly blended. Iq 
the kindergartens connected with the New Britain and Willimantic 
normal schools of Connecticut the children six years old apply 
kindergarten manual training to the study of plant life and of 
standard literature. Children of seven use sloyd and work 
with tools at the bench. Children's drawings, illustrating the 
development of the bean and pea from observation of specimens 
they had planted, are produced. Also object drawing, in color, 
of various plant forms, and illustrations of a study of Long- 
fellow's " Hiawatha," is made the beginning of study in litera- 
ture. In many kindergartens the history of the country is begun 
by making pictures or models of historical objects or personages, 
and acting out the story which they represent. 

Manual Training in the Primary School. 

Until within the past two or three years no course of manual 
training was devised for children in the primary grades. The field 
still remains open and comparatively untried between the kinder- 
garten and the departments of sewing, cookery and wood-working 
in the grammar schools. The work of formulating appropriate 
lines of manual training for this intervening period has been and 
is largely experimental and in most cases fragmentary. While 
there are many courses for specific branches of manual training, 
there are but few which attempt to integrate the various occupa- 
tions into a sequential course of exercises. In some courses which 
have been thus far developed, the industrial and utilitarian element 
has been a prominent feature. 

Enough has been done, however, to indicate that the develop- 
ment of the kindergarten occupations furnishes the best basis for 
the manual training of the primary and lower grammar schools. 
In the large cities of this country and Europe this motive has 
given shape to all courses, and the kindergarten occupations are 
carried up in close connection with every department of study, so 
that the manual training becomes a method of work as well as a 
plan of work. 



38 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Opinions of Educators as to Primary Methods of Manual 

Training. 

This course of development is in accordance with the doctrine 
of those most prominently associated with the manual training 
movement from the first. In an address before the Social Science 
Association, in 1884, General Walker says : u It is not so much 
the creation and endowment of separate schools of this character 
which is in view, as the gradual conversion of all the existing 
schools of the land to this use through the grafting of certain 
studies and exercises upon the traditional curriculum. As to the 
precise nature and extent of the studies and exercises which 
should to this end be incorporated in the public school curriculum, 
and as to the order of these exercises, much difference of opinion 
will doubtless be developed among those who advocate an exten- 
sive modification of the present system. The true system will of 
course have to be worked out through long discussion and experi- 
mentation." 

In 1880 Prof. Felix Adler started the Workingman's School, in 
New York City, which introduced practical lines of industrial 
training and tool work for children. Professor Adler says : 
" Among those who have given most thoughtful attention to the 
subject, the following points are accepted, namely : that manual 
training means the training of the intellect as well as the hand ; 
that its chief recommendation is that it offers a new instrumen- 
tality for training the mind ; that manual training logically con- 
nects with the system of teaching at the point called object 
teaching ; that the business of manual training is to deepen the 
methods of object teaching. The old object method was to teach 
the child to observe, but manual training teaches not only to 
observe but to create. The principal departments of school in 
which this method is illustrated are the departments of drawing, 
of geometry and of science." 

" Manual training, in order to be fully educative," says Dr. W. 
N. Hailmann, " should at every step be in full touch with all the 
kinds of knowledge the child is seeking, and with the ideas he 
wishes to express. It must be connected with his number studies, 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 39 

his form studies, his interest in physical and chemical properties, 
in motion and machinery, his nature studies, his geography and 
history, his language and art." 

Mr. George Ricks, school inspector of London, says: "The 
manual training we contemplate is a form of education intended to 
develop general manual dexterity rather than special aptitude. 
Manual training must take its place in the general cultivation of 
the faculties." 

These quotations indicate the determining motive of manual 
training courses above the kindergarten, and express the general 
aim of such courses as have been initiated in the primary and 
grammar schools. It is understood to be a method rather than a 
department of educational work, and the kindergarten occupations 
are accepted as the basis of the primary courses to be adapted to 
the studies leading to the higher courses. The study of language, 
number, form, place, color, mineral, plant and animal life are all 
developed by tangible means, and learning is accomplished by 
doing. Every idea is aroused by material presentation, and com- 
pleted by actual representation. The self- activity of the child is 
engaged from first to last for the development of his powers. 

Kindergarten Occupations in the Primary School. 
The kindergarten occupations can be directly applied to the 
language and number work of the primary school, as well as to 
the observational study of natural forms. The material symbols 
of the manual training naturally introduce pictorial symbols, and 
these latter the conventional symbols of reading, writing and 
ciphering. Speech becomes a spontaneous expression of ideas 
generated by manual training, and operations in numbers naturally 
arise in connection with many of the kindergarten occupations. 
In considering feasible schemes of manual training for the primary 
school, we would suggest that the child be kept at work as much as 
possible on material which offers little resistance, such as clay, 
wax, paper and worsted. These offer a wide scope for progressive 
work, enabling the child to put the stress of his attention not so 
much upon the means as upon the end of his work, viz., the 
agreement of his results with his ideas. They can be readily 



40 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

made to reproduce, with a high degree of accuracy, his observa- 
tions or imaginations. They also furnish excellent opportunities 
for social work ; tiles of clay or mosaic work in paper and design, 
patterns of embroidery in parts, will supply groups of children or 
entire classes with tasks referring to a common plan or purpose. 
Woven worsted squares combined in a general design arouse the 
interest and cultivate the benevolent activities better than many 
isolated efforts. This work may be made to lead to the threshold 
of art, and prepare the children for full efficiency in all relations 
of practical life. 

Paper and card-board work in folding, cutting, pasting and con- 
struction affords means for adding to the gains from the handling 
of plastic material ; habits of foresight and accuracy, which are 
invaluable in every vocation, are induced by these occupations, 
because the slightest errors are followed by irretrievable failure, 
while conscientious and careful work ensures success. Card-board 
modelling admits of closer attention to details than sloyd, and 
is therefore less crude and utilitarian. Paper cutting and card- 
board modelling are a sure foundation for scientific artisanship, 
which rests primarily on accuracy and adaptation of means to end. 
They also lend themselves to ornamentation through drawing, 
painting, inlaying, cutting and carving. Paper and card-board 
cutting can be carried through the first eight years of school life 
as a means of illustration in geometry and geography, mineralogy 
and botany, as well as artistic representation, in all of which it 
secures inventive and constructive skill, with manual dexterity and 
delicacy. Work which is done by the fingers is more educative to 
the brain than that which is done by broader areas of muscular 
activity ; delicate work of concentrated nervous power serves 
a higher psychological end than crude physical effort. As the 
courses advance they should become more closely associated and 
inter-related, as well as more distinctive and elective in each line, 
so as to give freedom of development for individual gifts and 
aptitudes. Building with blocks may lead to discovery of laws 
of physics, as well as architectural design ; weaving may become 
artistic, as well as more variously and usefully industrial ; sewing 
may connect itself with art on the side of embroidery and dress- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 41 

making ; clay modelling works for art culture, and especially for 
sculpture ; coloring appeals most effectually to the aesthetic and 
spiritual nature ; drawing as a means of expression and a common 
language of form seems to cover every part of the educational 
field equally with spoken and written language; gardening is 
appropriate to every period of school life, as a healthful out-of- 
door occupation, furnishing the environment of nature, and leading 
to a study of natural science and field work in mineralogy and 
botany. Every school should have a garden for the children to 
work in. 

All these methods of manual training may be applied from the 
beginning to the end of school life, and to every study, consti- 
tuting laboratory work in every line. All manual training should 
grow into applied science or art, and vitalize every branch of 
study. 

Courses of Manual Training for Elementary Schools. 

There have been various experiments and attempts to formulate 
a system of manual training between the kindergarten and wood- 
working shops. At the Conference on Manual Training, held in 
Boston in April, 1891, many of these schemes were represented, 
some of which are given in this report. (See Appendix M.) 

In visiting the schools of some of the principal cities of the 
United States, we found the kindergarten occupations incorpo- 
rated in the curriculum as a method of work applied to every 
branch and grade of instruction, notably in Washington, 
Brookline and Boston, where, as in some western cities, it is 
carried on by a course in stick and tablet laying, paper cutting 
and folding, sewing, clay modelling, drawing, painting and card- 
board construction. In a manual training exhibit of the schools 
of London, visited in the interests of this Commission, there 
was a great variety of work in all the lines mentioned. The 
drawing was fine in all departments, and designs in color conven- 
tionalized from plant forms were excellent. This work is under 
the direction of an art superintendent, with four specialists as 
assistants, who conduct the work of their departments from the 
kindergarten to the training school. There is a noticeably scien- 



42 MANUAL TRAILING AND 

tific bearing throughout the manual training of the Liverpool and 
London schools. Mr. George Ricks, inspector of the London 
Board Schools, claims to have initiated and formulated the system 
of manual training for the consecutive course so as to relate it to 
every study and every grade. In the Liverpool Board Schools 
the courses are well permeated with manual training, and the Day 
Industrial Schools and Certified Industrial Schools give proficiency 
in the common industries and occupations of life. In the Board 
Schools much is made of mechanical and geometric drawing, and 
Mr. Hewitt, the director of science, has given a distinctively 
scientific value to the work. The making of simple apparatus 
for physical laboratory lessons, cabinets for natural science col- 
lections and working drawings for all tool work is a strong 
feature in the Liverpool course. In the Paris school work the 
art idea prevails, and beauty is invariably associated with use ; 
color enters into every part of the work, and historic orna- 
mentation is suggested in every grade of hand-work. It is a 
prominent fact in the courses of the European schools that the 
work is built up under the direction of eminent scientists and 
educators, and a training in art is considered necessary for 
the instructor in manual training and artisanship. The work 
of Liverpool, London and Paris was personally inspected as 
far as opportunity allowed. It is an accepted doctrine in these 
cities that the ends to be sought in manual training are pre- 
eminently educational. In Germany the work has been grow- 
ing, and the schools of Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, Heidelberg 
and other places carry on manual training for young children 
with great success. In Sweden and Norway sloyd fills the 
various grades. 

There is still a good deal of experimentation along detached 
lines in all our cities. In Boston great freedom of selection is 
given to the schoolmasters, and the work is still tentative in the 
lower grammar grades. Sewing and cookery are required and 
well systematized for girls ; but a variety of courses of other 
manual training is exhibited in the schools, according to the 
inclination or opportunity of the master and the conditions of the 
school. In some grammar classes knife work with flat wood in 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 43 

geometric forms, or small models of useful articles, and wood- 
carving, are undertaken. In others the interest is devoted to 
color work and design with fresco paints ; in others, notably the 
Italian districts, clay modelling and plaque relief forms are 
frequent ; in one school quite remarkable work has been done in 
connection with nature study ; in others black-board sketching has 
supplied the manual training and art work for the lower gram- 
mar grades. Geographical illustration in clay, the construction 
of models in wood or card-board to illustrate the principles of 
physics or machinery, drawing in color, with pressing and mount- 
ing of flowers for various lines of botanical study, arrangement 
of specimens in science, and so forth, have furnished the motive 
of manual training in many schools. 

The Springfield schools have, for the lower grammar grades, a 
course in whittling at the ordinary desk and in the ordinary class- 
room. The Northampton course is a logical sequence in wood- 
working with the knife, through every grade ; it is artistic as well 
as scientific in tendency. 

The Connecticut model schools introduce sloyd for children 
from ten to fourteen years old, using the saw, file, plane and 
chisel. The Eva Rodhe models, endorsed by the Naas school, 
are for children from five to ten, with tools adapted to their use. 
The object made, rather than the exercise or tools mastered, has 
been emphasized in these sloyd courses, in order to secure the 
child's interest, and strengthen the moral motive. 

Some primary-school courses include kitchen gardening and 
elementary housewifery. The Landreth School, of Philadelphia, 
trains the younger girls to set and clear a lunch table, wash dishes 
and keep a room in order, decorate the teacher's desk and wait 
upon visitors, as well as attend to the detail of daily school-room 
service. This kind of instruction is a part of the kindergarten 
idea of social education. 

A number of published courses of manual training foi primary 
and lower grammar grades, or advanced kindergarten occupations, 
have been given to the public. " Primary Methods," by Dr. 
W. N. Hailmann, shows how the occupations of the kindergarten 
can be applied to language, number, nature study, geography and 



44 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

so forth. Miss Marwedel's " Missing Link " carries the kinder- 
garten occupations forward with study of form and color, 
woodwork in grotesque forms simulating movements of life, 
nature study, etc. Mr. George Ricks of London has set 
forth a course, in his "Hand and Eye Training," which makes 
much of block building as a means of mechanical and architect- 
ural training, connected with drawings of plans and elevations, 
object drawing for perspective with design and historic ornamen- 
tation, — a complete course. The same book emphasizes the 
elements of color and conventional design and card-board work as 
adapted to grammar-school grades. 

Professor Hewitt of Liverpool has published a treatise on 
manual training for intermediate grades. In this book we have an 
admirable series of carefully arranged exercises on paper cutting 
and folding, modelling in clay, drawing, lath bending, etc., which 
cannot fail to interest and amuse the dullest pupil. The exer- 
cises, too, are so carefully selected that the instruction imparts a 
good foundation knowledge of the truths of geometry. 

The study and use of color is a most important educational 
element in manual training. It should begin with the kindergar- 
ten and extend through every grade. The training of the sight, 
together with the color sense, should be simultaneous with the 
training of the hand in applying color. The study of the standard 
colors of the spectrum should be introduced into the kindergarten 
occupations of weaving, of sewing and of paper cutting and 
design ; tints and shades of color, secondary and tertiary colors, 
should be made further subjects of study in the primary school, 
and the application of the spectrum to design and representative 
drawing should carry with it a growing appreciation of harmony 
and delicacy of color. The use of colored crayons in free-hand 
drawing, or the use of the brush in the application of pigments, 
involves most careful training of the color perception and of the 
hand. The appreciation of color and the harmonious rendering 
of the coloring of nature in free-hand drawings with the brush 
from the direct study of natural forms educates the aesthetic sense, 
and leads to the highest interpretation and correlation of science 
and art. In the use of the brush great care is necessary ; putting 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 45 

washes of color on to definite outlines of form involves most 
exact manipulation, and gives a very close training of the 
hand. A course of work in color, by S. TV. Tilton of Boston, 
presents a well-graded and related system of the use of the 
brush, and carries with its progressive lessons the thorough 
training of the eye and hand, the careful and i sympathetic ob- 
servation of natural and artistic forms, and the cultivation of 
the sense of beauty and harmony, which is in the highest de- 
gree developing to the spiritual nature. The element of color 
is strongly developed in our best courses of hand and eye train- 
ing, both in this country and in Europe, and is recognized as 
essential to the true study of form and the best results in 
manual training in school education. 

No arbitrary forms or symbols should be imposed upon the child 
for manual representation. He should observe natural forms until 
he apprehends their typical character. The sphere should be 
shown in the bubble, the drop, the leaf cell, before its artificial 
representation is forced upon his attention. He can mould it in 
the hollow of his palm before he attempts to copy it as a model. 
The cube and other symmetrical forms should be presented to him 
by the mineral or the plant form, and then by its production by 
pressure from the sphere. The cylinder should appeal to him in 
the form of nature before being put into his hands as a type form. 
The tree trunk, the grass stem, will reveal it to him as a prolonged 
cell and a common form of plant life. The egg is nature's perfect 
ovoid. The stalactite, the sand heap in the hour glass, are photo- 
types of the pyramid, and show the process of formation as well 
as the arrangement of parts. In fact, we should begin with the 
discovery of the phototypes in nature, rather than with the type 
models of art. The discovery of the action of natural forces 
which produce typical forms, such as the rotation of a straight 
line in a given plane about a fixed point to produce the circle, the 
rotation of a semi-circle about an axis to produce the sphere, the 
rotation of a rectangular plane about an axis to produce a cylin- 
der, the rotation of a triangle about an axis to produce a cone, the 
equal and opposite pressure upon a sphere to produce a cube, the 
same upon a cone to produce a pyramid, etc., may lead the child 



46 MANUAL TRAININGS AND 

to recognize the typical character of these forms before he is pre- 
sented with their artificial models. The child should begin with 
nature in his approach to art, and not with conventional patterns 
which are thrust upon him. 

In the choice of occupations as means of manual training, some 
regard should be paid to the natural and available industries of 
the place or the people where the child is, that his interest may be 
more real, and that the idea of helpfulness may be emphasized. 
Some of the old New England industries may, perhaps, be sub- 
stituted for those already in the curriculum, yet never for the mere 
accident of custom if not as good educationally. Plaiting with 
straw for baskets or bonnets, braiding strips of cloth for rugs, 
knitting, crocheting, working rugs on canvas with a hook and bits 
of cloth in various colors and patterns, are all traditional house- 
hold industries of New England, and give excellent training for 
the hand and eye, as well as for the social instinct. Mosaic work 
in tiles would be very pleasant and educative occupation in the 
schools, and might be made decorative to the school-room. 

In the various occupations laid down by Froebel, a logical 
sequence of development is inculcated. The sewing, the block 
building, the paper folding are to be carried forward by a definite 
series of steps and unfolding of design, which cultivates the 
logical sense unconsciously, and leads the child to a perception of 
sequence and prepares him for inductive reasoning. This idea of 
development should be continued throughout the manual training 
of the schools. It is made the chief factor in the sloyd work, and 
dominates every other purpose. 

After the adoption of the kindergarten into the Boston school 
system it became evident that manual training must be carried up 
into the primary grades. A course of exercises was personally 
initiated in 1888 by the present writer, and in 1889 it was formu- 
lated by her, in outline, for the "Boston Course of Study." It 
was ordered in all the primary schools in 1890, and the course 
elaborated in detail by Mrs. Caroline F. Cutler. This detailed 
course was connected with that of drawing already in the schools, 
and was published as a manual which is now in use in the Boston 
schools. The Boston primary manual training course has been 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 47 

adopted literally by various cities all over the country. This 
course, with others, is given in Appendix M. Photographs of 
Mrs. Cutler's course are also given. (See Appendix N.) 

The " Prang Course " in form study offers a series of exercises 
which have in them very largely the element of manual training, 
and which are easily affiliated with much broader manual-training 
exercises, as well as developed in any one direction, according to 
the conditions of the school or aptitude of the pupil. This series 
puts distinct emphasis on the development of the child through his 
aesthetic feelings, and creative activities as expressing those feel- 
ings. The industrial idea is not lost sight of, but in the early 
stages of the work is of the least prominence, and subordinated 
to ideas of beauty. As the "Prang Course" is the only course 
thoroughly presented by charts from kindergarten to high school, 
it is shown in Appendix N by photographs, with an explanation 
of its motive, quoted from the "Kindergarten Magazine," and 
written by Mrs. Mary D. Hicks, director of the Prang normal art 
classes. 

Conditions for Manual Training. 
The relation of manual training to every department of educa- 
tion should be close and continuous. In respect to physical train- 
ing, of which it is a part, the offices should be mutually helpful. 
Exercises of the whole body, with reference to the harmonious 
activity of all parts ; corrective training of posture and move- 
ments, to balance any one-sided development incident to manual 
training ; lung exercises in pure air before and after manual- 
training lessons ; sitting and standing exercises, counteracting 
habitual postures of hand and arm in manual training ; corrective 
exercises in looking at objects from a distance, after the short 
range of vision required by the use of hand tools, or of looking 
with both eyes or with one eye less used ; hygienic practice in 
thorough cleanliness, giving flexibility and other right conditions 
for healthful physical training, — all these should accompany, or 
rather underlie, all manual training. The schools of England and 
Sweden present a lesson in this direction for American schools. 
The basin, wash-cloth, soup and towel for each individual pupil, 



48 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

the bathing appointments — tubs, swimming-tanks, etc. — in every 
school, show a great advance in hygienic provision over our own 
accommodations ; the lighting of school-rooms arranged under the 
direction of oculists as well as architects, also the play -grounds 
and physical appliances and accommodations, give evidence of a 
care for the health of the child which we have not yet assumed. 
All these lines of development should proceed conjointly with 
manual training, in order to secure the best results. 

In much of the work hitherto mentioned, manual training is 
recognized as a method rather than an end, and it is taking its 
place in our curriculums as a plan of development in every line of 
work. All the detail of subject or system is as yet an experi- 
ment ; the plan most wisely educational is the best plan ; but that 
excellence must be determined in a large measure by the con- 
ditions of the school, the wants of the children and the aptness or 
opportunity of the teacher, as well as by the practical preparation 
which it provides for actual life. 

In formulating courses of manual training, it seems especially 
important to recognize also the spiritual side of the child's 
nature, and give it opportunity for development by providing for 
the exercise of the aesthetic faculties as well as the moral activities, 
and furnishing the stimulus of beauty in all study of form and 
color and all directions of manual training. This would involve 
placing within the child's reach all that elevates the feelings and 
embodies the highest ideals. If possible, give to the humblest of 
our children the advantage of the supreme culture of the world in 
literature and art to guide them in the recognition of the best 
standards, and to point them to the masterpieces of the race. By 
so doing we give the child his right to freedom of growth under 
the best conditions through which his creative impulses will be 
ennobled and strengthened, while his hands are made skilful to 
express them for the moral and spiritual benefit as well as the 
intellectual and material progress of the community, as he grows 
into his relations with the life of the world. All these avenues 
to physical and spiritual culture must be kept open, in order to 
purify, enrich and elevate a course so tangibly embodied and so 
easily made materialistic and mechanical. Hygienic conditions 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 49 

must be given to labor and an artistic tendency to industry through 
the methods of manual training in the schools. To this end 
access should be given to our public-school children to museums 
not only of mechanical inventions but of science and art. 

Moral Result of Manual Training. 

Occupation, although the passive side of manual training, is yet 
the salvation of disciplinary methods. Give the child a tool, you 
at once differentiate him from the animal ; he begins to feel his 
human capacity and his human relations ; he wants to work out 
his ideas and give tangible shape to his thought, to communicate 
what he knows, and become a unit in the unity of human brother- 
hood. Fraternal industry is the watch- word of our times. A few 
principles and simple tools give the key to all trades and arts. 
The boy must know how to take his place in the economy of the 
household. Give him the saw, the plane and the hammer. Let 
him take his knife out of his pocket, and turn it to good account. 
Let the girl learn housewifery, sewing and cooking, that the home 
may be a beneficent factor in our private and public life. 

" The exercises in manual training," says the " Boston Course 
of Study," " are a means not only of physical and intellectual but 
of moral culture. They train to habits of accuracy, neatness, 
order and thoroughness ; they exercise the judgment, will and 
conscience ; they present an incentive to good work in all 
directions, and offer a moral stimulus and preparation for useful- 
ness at home and in the community." 

The children are taught to love tangible work, — and what child 
does not? They are trained to be apt in applying their construc- 
tive and originative powers to the material about them. They are 
related to the industries which develop all our resources ; they are 
given mastery of all their active powers. They learn the elements 
of labor and service in which all share. 

All our present efforts at industrial education are in the interest 
of homes that shall save men from vice, society from disorder 
and the laborer from despair. Skill at some trade, aptness at 
some hand-work, the ability to support one's self, to do something 
which has a market value, is a great preventive of crime. Who 



50 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



can point to a skilled mechanic of good habits and available 
health whose family are beggars ? Systematic labor, work for a 
purpose not merely mechanical but scientific in method, is the out- 
come of manual training in the schools. 

Testimony of Boston teachers after the initiation of manual 
training in the lower schools : — 

" The boys looked forward with great pleasure to the privilege 
of using the tools. Many times they would voluntarily remain 
after school to finish the articles they had begun." 

4 'The beneficial effect of this work on the pupil is surprising; 
whereas, before it, there had been cases of truancy which were 
considered incorrigible, and corporal punishments were of daily 
necessity, after it not a case of truancy occurred, nor was corporal 
punishment once necessary." 

Much testimony has come to hand in cases of children of 
deficient intellectual development whom the simple forms of 
manual training have been potent to arouse and stimulate. Such 
children have advanced in their power to learn by exercising their 
power to do. 

Manual training and physical training offer a solution of the 
moral problem of school education. Orderly hand-work is regen- 
erative when all directly ethical means are of no avail to build up 
character. Its material advantages are so plain that they need no 
recital ; its educative power is what most concerns us in the con- 
sideration of our school courses. 

Conclusions. 
From these various considerations it becomes evident that man- 
ual training, in order to be effective as an educational method, 
must connect itself with all branches of study ; that it must be 
well conditioned morally, physically and socially, and develop in 
three directions, — namely, industry, science and art. The indus- 
trial element must become fraternal, must connect the child with 
his fellows, and prepare him to be a worker and helper in the com- 
munity of practical life ; the scientific element must connect the 
child with nature, and prepare him for discovery and creative 
skill, that he may add to the resources of common life and minis- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 51 

ter to the common good ; the artistic element should connect him 
with the ideal in all things, and lead him to spiritual culture 
and influence for the elevation of mankind. Thus the child is 
related throughout his school education to nature, to man and to 
God. 

Taking the kindergarten occupations as a starting-point, we 
may follow them out in this three-fold development, by progres- 
sive exercises and more and more resisting material demanding 
more and more complex tools and ever-increasing skill and higher 
results, both educational and practical. The result of a course of 
training with tools is a mastery over one's powers as well as over 
the material handled. Self-respect is induced, which should never 
be carelessly overthrown by treating with indifference or rudeness 
anything which has been conscientiously made by the child, as 
such treatment destroys the interest and frustrates the moral pur- 
pose of the work. A few exercises with simple tools give the 
key to all trades. The psychological result is broad and distinct, 
and builds up mental strength and adaptability. The moral result 
is to awaken a feeling of conscience, power and self-control, to 
train the will to instant efficiency and the moral discrimination to 
keen and sure judgment. 

Sewing. 

The first branch of industrial education which found a place in 
the schools of Boston was sewing for girls. As early as 1835 the 
girls of the second and third classes of the grammar schools were 
instructed in sewing and knitting by their regular teachers, one 
hour a day. In 1854 a petition was presented to the school com- 
mittee by a large number of Boston women, which resulted in the 
establishment of sewing for all fourth-class grammar-school girls, 
two hours a week, under the instruction of a special teacher for 
each school. 

At the instigation of Mr. Robert Swan, master of the Win- 
throp School, in 1872, the sewing and other industrial education 
was made legal by an act of the General Court of Massachusetts, 
entitled " An Act to authorize cities and towns to establish indus- 
trial schools " (1872, chapter 86), and reading as follows : — 



52 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The city council of any city and any town may establish and 
maintain one or more industrial schools, and raise and appropriate 
the money necessary to render them efficient. Such schools shall 
be under the superintendence of the board of school committee of 
the city or town wherein they are established, and such board shall 
employ the teachers, prescribe the arts, trades and occupations to 
be taught in such schools, and shall have the general control and 
management thereof : provided, that in no case shall the expense 
of any such school exceed the appropriation specifically made 
therefor ; and provided, that nothing in this act contained shall 
authorize the school committee of any city or town to compel any 
scholar to study any trade, art or occupation without the consent 
of the parent or guardian of such scholar, and that attendance 
upon any such school shall not take the place of the attendance 
upon public school required by the law. 

By this act Massachusetts took the lead in public industrial 
education in this country. 

In 1873, upon application of Mr. Swan, a teacher was appointed 
in that school for every class, teaching the highest classes to cut 
and fit their own dresses. In 1876, instruction in sewing, two 
hours a week, to the three lower classes in the grammar school, 
was established by the school committee. Since that year it has 
increased steadily in efficiency in all the schools. 

The cost of material for all the schools is but a little over two 
hundred dollars a year ; the salary of a teacher from five hundred 
to one thousand dollars, according to the number of hours she is 
employed. The cost of material in the Boston schools is less than 
one dollar per class for one year, and the average number of 
pieces made each year nearly two thousand per school. 

To the Winthrop School, through the untiring energy and 
benevolence of its master, sustained by the charity and sympathy 
of the women of Boston, and especially of Mrs. Mary Hemenway, 
is due the honor of beginning and leading in this useful and 
honorable work. The evident need of some practical training for 
girls in domestic employment was its immediate inspiration. The 
purpose was not so much educational as utilitarian and industrial. 
The instruction has been individual, even with large classes, and 
the children have always been led to make useful household 
articles and garments, and to acquire skill in plain needlework. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, 53 

Mr. Swan has spread the knowledge of this department all over 
the land by sending reports of its operation to school committees 
and superintendents, and by showing the work to visitors from all 
parts of the world. Almost every large city and town in the 
country has applied to Boston for information in regard to the 
establishment of this department of school instruction, and the 
Boston school sewing exhibits have won prizes at every large 
industrial and educational exposition for several years. 

Sewing is now a part of the regular instruction in the kinder- 
garten and primary schools, where it is carried on by the regular 
teachers, both for boys and girls. Classes for boys have, in some 
cases, been formed in the grammar schools for instruction in 
sewing, and have found aptness and enjoyment in the work. 

Sewing, as a branch of domestic industry, is carried on in girls' 
schools in England and on the Continent. In England, Belgium 
and France the instruction extends to embroidery and artistic 
work. Advanced needlework is offered as part of the course of 
Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, of the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn 
and others in this country, also in the South Kensington School 
of Art Needlework, and many of the schools of Paris. Some 
account of such work is given in the records of the investigations 
of this Commission during the summer of 1892. (See Appendix 
M.) Some courses in this country have a more educational 
motive than others. The Brookline course is perhaps the most 
progressive.* 

Cookery. 

Instruction in cookery was first given to public-school children 
in this country under the auspices of the Young Women's Christian 
Association, in 1880. In 1883 the North Bennet Street Indus- 
trial School established instruction in cookery for classes from 
the public schools. In the summer of 1885 a vacation cookery 
school was established by Mrs. Hemenway. It was thoroughly 
equipped, and in the fall was offered for the use of Boston 
schools. The school committee accepted it under the name of 
" Boston School Kitchen, No. 1." Pupils were sent from several 

* The Brookline and Boston courses have been recently fully presented in illus- 
trated text-books published in Boston. 



54 MANUAL TRAINING ANI> 

schools, at the rate of one hundred a week. This school was 
supported by Mrs. Hemenway for three years, until its industrial 
and educational advantages were fully demonstrated, and in 1888 
the city assumed the charge of the school, having established 
similar schools in South Boston and Roxbury, followed later by 
others in Charlestown, Allston and East Boston. Cookery is now 
a regular branch of instruction for all girls in the second and third 
classes of the Boston schools. In some cases boys are members 
of the cookery classes. Mrs. Hemenway has also established a 
normal school of cookery, from which competent teachers are 
supplied. The examinations for cookery teacher's certificate, like 
those for sewing teacher's certificate, require an equivalent of the 
grammar-school course of study, with special examination in 
domestic and household economy, principles and processes of 
cookery, and chemistry and physiology as applied to cooking. 

Instruction in cookery has been established in England for some 
years. The Northern Union of schools of cookery, established in 
1876, includes many training schools which have supplied teachers 
for all the world, and set the standards of courses in cookery and 
housewifery. Cooking now holds a high position in the educa- 
tional code of Europe. Glasgow, Liverpool and South Kensing- 
ton have qualified more teachers than any other schools. The 
requirements of these schools have been largely adopted by the 
cookery courses of our own cities. 

Belgium and France have been prominent in establishing this 
department in the public schools. Laundry work is usually con- 
nected with cookery in the curriculum of European schools and 
some American schools, but here it does not prevail. In this 
country a few Eastern colleges for women, many "Western agri- 
cultural colleges, the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia and the 
Pratt Institute of Brooklyn, give courses in domestic science and 
arts. In our own State no one has done more to awaken an 
interest in the educational value of domestic science and to initiate 
its courses in advanced institutions for women than Mrs. Ellen H. 
Richards, instructor in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
Her monograph entitled " Domestic Economy in Public Educa- 
tion," published in 1889 by the New York College for the Training 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 55 

of Teachers, is the most noteworthy contribution to the subject, 
and is presented in Appendix N. The Drexel and Pratt institute 
courses of domestic science are given as models. A lecture course 
on house decoration is also presented as a suggestive plan of work 
in such a department. (See Appendix M.) 

An estimate of equipment and cost of a school kitchen, and 
of the running cost per pupil of the sewing and cooking as well 
as the kindergarten departments of manual training, is presented in 
Appendix N. 

In England and in this country the department is provided for 
in the public schools by cooking centres or school kitchens, which 
receive classes from groups of schools, with a permanent teacher 
for each centre. 

Vacation Industrial Schools, 
Immediately after the organization of this Commission, the 
writer spent some days in visiting vacation industrial schools of 
Boston, — the North Bennet Street School, the Tennyson Street 
School, the King Street School in Eoxbury, the Warrenton Street 
School and the Waite School being the most important within the 
city limits. These are each supported by some private, charitable 
organization, and under the supervision of managers appointed by 
these organizations. Kindergartens and sand gardens are well 
conducted and largely attended in all. Clay modelling, drawing, 
sloyd, carpentry, printing, chair-seat weaving, shoemaking, sew- 
ing, cooking, kitchen gardens, dress cutting and fitting and a few 
minor industries are carried on in one or more of the schools. 
The schools are always full and many of the manual training 
classes crowded, although the attendance is irregular. It is 
evident that children who would otherwise be in the streets all 
summer are here occupied happily and profitably, and the school- 
rooms, otherwise non-productive for weeks, are utilized for the 
good of the community. It is difficult to get the boys out of the 
carpentry classes at the hour for closing, as they take such interest 
in the work. The little girls, learning how to keep house, to set 
the table, to wash the dishes, wash the clothes, make the fire, 
sweep, dust, etc., are all engrossed in busy play ; while the sewing 



56 MANUAL TRAINING- AND 

and cooking, the printing and shoemaking are followed with eager 
interest by the older children. On the whole, we are convinced 
that in this direction a most valuable field of operation for manual 
and industrial training and practical use of our otherwise useless 
school buildings during the long summer vacation invites the 
attention of the State, for the benefit of thousands of children 
who are literally vagrants in our streets during that time, and 
perhaps making rapid strides in criminal habits, incident to pro- 
tracted idleness while the statutes forbid their employment as 
wage earners. 

The first vacation school in Boston was opened by Miss M. E. 
Very, a teacher in the Hillside Grammar School. This was carried 
on unaided for a few years at the North End. In 1881 a kitchen 
garden was introduced, through the kindness of Mrs. Hemenway. 
The school committee allowed the use of school-rooms, and the 
number of schools increased within another year to five. As to 
the manner of conducting the school, Miss Very wrote : — 

I do not ask the children to commit anything to memory during 
July and August. I allow them to whisper and move about 
gently. I find it very difficult to make a child go home before 
the school closes. That is my only punishment. My only rules 
are that they must come clean, and not use profane language or 
quarrel. We sing the first and last half hour of every day. We 
have kitchen-garden work, sewing, drawing, reading, moulding 
with clay, assorting of squares of colored paper, playing with dis- 
sected pictures and other kindergarten occupations. 

This is the first recorded manual and industrial vacation school 
for little children in Massachusetts. 

Permanent Industrial Schools. 
Many industrial schools supported by private enterprise have 
been established both in this country and Europe. The North 
Bennet Street and Warrenton Street schools have been for 
many years not only broad practical charities in Boston, but 
nurseries of manual training. In Liverpool the Day Industrial 
and the Certified Industrial schools, which are described in 
Appendix N, present some interesting features for considera- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 57 

tion in this country. The Maternal Schools of Paris, also de- 
scribed in the account of personal investigations for this Com- 
mission, teach several practical industries for girls. (See 
Appendix N.) The Workingmen's School in New York, con- 
ducted by Dr. Felix Adler, is one of the oldest of these schools 
in this country. 

For the Industrial Schools of London and Liverpool, see records 
of visits in the interest of this Commission, also reports of Day 
and Certified Industrial schools of Liverpool, in Appendix N. 

Normal Industrial Schools. 

The Naas School of Sloyd in Sweden, the University College of 
Liverpool, the New York Training College for Teachers, the Pratt 
Institute of Brooklyn and the Boston Normal Cooking School are 
among the most prominent institutions for normal instruction in 
various branches of manual training. Technical courses in kinder- 
garten, domestic science and arts, and in various branches of 
manual training, introduced into the public schools, should be a 
part of our normal school curriculum. It is of the greatest im- 
portance that the teachers should be thoroughly trained on special 
lines, in order that these new departments and methods of educa- 
tion shall be well founded and conducted in our public schools. 

Domestic science and arts should be made an elective course in 
our high schools and colleges for girls, or special schools should be 
established for such courses. We cannot present the subject bet- 
ter than by giving the curriculum of such courses as have been 
already established, and referring to Mrs. Richards' monograph, 
given in Appendix N, 



58 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



PART III. 



By GEORGE E. McNEILL. 



Social and Economic Aspects. 

Civilized and enlightened government is possible only where the 
citizens are free and enlightened, — free materially as well as politi- 
cally, and enlightened morally as well as intellectually, These 
conditions cannot exist where the great masses of mankind are 
dependent upon a comparatively small class of their fellow citi- 
zens for the opportunity to labor, or the means to acquire 
knowledge and property. Free government means free training, 
and enlightened government means enlightened training. 

The men who landed on the shores of Plymouth were divinely 
trained and led in matters spiritual and fraternal, and were as 
devoutly led in matters industrial and political. The Bible and 
the musket rang out their challenge to the world. 

The meeting-house was the centre of the democratic union of 
Church and State, a union of faith and works. It was a religion 
without a bishop and a State without a king. The colonists had 
great reverence for learning and no less respect for labor. 

The "Puritan," sneered at by the dilletante liberalists of 
to-day, was a hard man, — hard to contend with, whether in the 
field of productive labor or destructive war, in religious argument 
or political debate. He was the best equipped man of his time. 
As populations increased and industries became more diversified, 
his adaptability was extended. 

Every home had its Bible, its library, musket and tool chest. 
Householders were landholders. Children were nurtured in the 
fear of the Lord, in habits of industry and frugality and a 
knowledge of letters. They were trained in the use of the musket 
and the tools of industry. They of necessity kept their houses in 
repair. The boys in such homes not only learned the art of 
sawing and splitting wood, but of sharpening the ax on the grind- 
stone and the saw teeth with a file. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 59 

The school-house was an important part of the democratic 
unity. Upon the foundation of religion, industry and learning 
rest our free institutions. From a race of men so trained sprang 
the men and women who wrested peace and prosperity from the 
control of opposing nature and wild men. From the meeting- 
house, the school-house, the fields and the ocean graduated the 
men and women of 1776, the authors of our political indepen- 
dence, the founders of our States and the creators of the Union. 
For over two hundred years men thus trained and cultured held 
New England safe from external and internal danger. Work, 
worship and study were the order of daily life and the means of 
grace through which to attain heaven. Prayer welcomed the day 
of work as well as the day of rest. Ignorance and idleness were 
considered the worst of carnal vices. Ben Franklin's proverbs 
were but the pithy presentation of a secular catechism long before 
in practice. 

A boy of twelve years of age who could not use the tools 
required for the manual training school of to-day was held to be 
below par. It would have been said of him that he had no 
"gumption." Boys and girls were the home helpers. They 
were trained in household duties from their earliest years. Boys, 
as well as girls, could sew and knit, and many of the boys could 
cook. They braided carpets and mats for home use and adorn- 
ment. Children's clothing was made in the home for the children 
of the home, and, although such clothing was not as stylish as the 
garments of to-day, it was free from the danger and misery of 
to-day's product of the sweater's den and tenement-house. 

In the memory of many men now living, the common-school 
education in the use of words was supplemented by the family 
education in the use of tools and implements, school and family 
uniting in quickening the moral perceptions of right and wrong. 
The result of this joint cultivation of heart, head and hand is 
found in the great names of our country's history, and in the 
advanced moral, intellectual and material condition of our people. 
As a rule, our great men have been educated men, not learned 
men, — educated in the school, on the farm and in the work- 
shop, — educated in dealing with men and things, as well as in 



60 MANUAL TRAINING- AND 

fundamental principles. To the common people, graduates of the 
family, school and workshop, are we indebted for the civilization 
we enjoy. 

The congregation of populations around the factories and work- 
shops in large towns and cities, and the increased demand for 
unskilled laborers in commercial and transportation centres, 
deprived the children of the workers of the joint educational 
influences of home and school. 

The carpenter, blacksmith and shoe shops of the neighbors 
were always open to the observation and often to the use of the 
boys, wherein they learned something of the use of wood, iron 
and leather, and the processes of their manufacture. 

In the crisis of the Union, men were found in the ranks of the 
New England volunteers who could do any kind and all kinds of 
work, and do it well, not only because many of the men were 
skilled in special trade, but because a Yankee-trained boy is full 
of the genius of invention and marvellous adaptability and power 
of execution. A pocket jack-knife was a part of every boy's 
outfit. Sloyd was and is practised by all country boys. They 
made boxes, toy boats, boot-jacks, traps, sleds and carts, and an 
infinite variety of toys and household things. They commenced 
modelling in clay at kindergarten age, beginning at mud pies 
and working up to marbles and even to dishes for play. Drawing 
may not have been taught, but it has always been practised. 
Paper hanging, whitewashing and painting were often a part of 
the work of the family. Many families reserved a place in the 
barn or wood shed for a bench and tools, and many hours of 
manual training were profitably employed and enjoyed in these 
" barn chambers " or work laboratories. 

From the home and the school the boy graduated, to enter 
either the workshop or the college. 

The mechanic, at the completion of his apprenticeship, was 
master of his trade, self-respecting and respected. He made a 
whole thing, thus developing the different faculties of the mind 
and body, the diversity of his employment giving zest and rest to 
his labor. He was measurably self-dependent, and therefore 
independent. With good health, a good trade, a good character 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 61 

and a public-school education, he was the peer of any man, a 
citizen sovereign in whose hands free institutions were safe. 

The manual training school is a necessary substitute for part of 
that which has been lost to the children of to-day. 

Under the old system, the shoemaker made shoes, the carpenter 
built houses. Now a shoe operative repeats one process upon one 
given part of the shoe, and it takes about one hundred shoe 
operatives to make one shoe. The carpenter may be a floor layer, 
a door and sash maker or a finisher, but rarely will he be a carpen- 
ter and joiner. 

The wage worker of to-day, whether a hand tool or a steam or 
electric tool worker, is less and less required to depend upon him- 
self in his work ; his opportunities of development in his work 
are limited, as compared to those of former times. 

The monotony of the present process of production leads to 
demoralizing excesses in many directions that would become more 
disastrous to the whole community but for the opportunities of 
the trades unions and reductions in the hours of labor. 

The old system of apprenticeship and the old system of em- 
ployment have passed away forever. The present system of 
production and distribution is but short-lived. The paramount 
question of to-day is, not how shall wealth be more rapidly pro- 
duced, but how shall the qualities of manhood, womanhood and 
childhood be improved. This the manual training system seeks to 
do in part. 

That the production of wealth is essential to the development 
of the best in humanity is evidenced by the history of the human 
family ; but it is equally true that wealth is most rapidly produced 
where it is best distributed, and that wealth is best distributed 
where manhood and womanhood are best developed. 

The Chinese know how to write and read, they are able to keep 
accounts and generally conform to the laws of their community ; 
yet poverty is almost a universal condition. They have skill and 
adaptability in the most marked degree, their mountains are full 
of coal and iron, vegetables and grain abound in great varieties, 
yet these millions of an ancient race are lowest in the level of 
civilization of any nationally organized people. 



62 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Confucius said that " those who work should first be esteemed 
and rewarded by the measure of their salary." The departure of 
the Chinese from this principle, enunciated by their greatest phi- 
losopher, and the method and scope of their educational system, 
has led to poverty. Or, as Dr. Harris says : " Mere prescription, 
mere inhibitory will-power, developed to extremes, produces only 
a mechanical civilization, — a dead mechanical state of social 
existence." We look upon the Chinese education as productive of 
such a condition. All is cut and dried and given to the pupil as a 
ready-made form, into which he must fit himself by inhibition of 
natural caprice and inclination. The consequence is the least 
possible progress and the completest administration of the old 
system. 

The dignity of the citizen and not the dignity of his product is 
the thing to be taught. If we take care to develop humanity, ail 
producing processes will take care of themselves. The inventive 
power, the likeness of God in man, is possible only when the 
human soul perceives an idea and works out its application to a 
given purpose. Inventions are profitable only when the aspira- 
tions and wants of a large number of persons have lifted their 
earnings to the higher level of civilization. 

Handicraft, as a means by which the masses of mankind can 
earn a living, is being replaced by machine-craft. Machine-craft 
in the production of a given article may be, and sometimes is, a 
barrier to ability in operating other improved machinery. Machin- 
ery is displacing and discharging laborers faster than new employ- 
ments are provided. The steam shovel and other appliances are 
reaching the poorest-paid and hardest-worked and most illiterate 
so-called unskilled workers. 

A reaction from present methods to something akin to the old 
handicraft system is as possible as the increase of illiteracy and 
the reduction of wages. Handicraft will increase in new direc- 
tions artward as the hours of wage labor are reduced and the hours 
of leisure increased. 

Learning a trade is like learning a dead language, useful as an 
accomplishment, but useless as an investment, save as it inter- 
prets a past mystery and disciplines the learner. 



INDUSTRIAL. EDUCATION. 63 

The lack of skill of wage earners is largely caused by the fact 
that skill has no permanent value, no dignity, no appreciable 
approbation. The skill acquired after years of work may be ren- 
dered useless as a means of earning a living by the introduction 
of machinery. The mind and the muscles of the workman have 
been trained in one given direction, and this training renders 
him less fit for the operation of the machine, and indeed for any 
other occupation. 

The plain men, labor reformers, who studied the industrial con- 
ditions and the evolutionary processes of development, foresaw 
that adaptability and availability were worth more than skilled 
ability. They were among the first to advocate and demand the 
kindergarten and the school of technology. They wrote, lectured 
and petitioned that the school should be the place of resistance to 
the demoralizing influences of the rapidly decaying industrial and 
social system, and a source of persistence in the direction of the 
moralizing influences of enlightened civilization. 

That some workingmen should oppose the extension of school 
work to primary preparation for manual pursuits was to be 
expected. Men whose occupations are their life must needs be 
jealous of everything that tends to increase competition. They 
know by instinct, if not by experience, that wages, under the 
pressure of competition with other laborers in the same craft, will, 
like water, seek its lowest outlet ; and they feel that resistance 
to lower wages, like resistance to tyranny, is obedience to God. 
The training of the mind to comprehend the draft of a thing and 
the training of the hand to produce it, when directed in any one 
craft, would necessarily increase competition in that occupation, 
and at first the school-taught mechanic would feel a degree of 
superiority over the hap-hazard mechanic of to-day. The em- 
ployer, in turn, would give preference in opportunity to the former, 
but would only maintain that preference if the former was cheaper 
to him than the latter. Under the present industrial system, 
cheap labor is preferred to high-priced skilled labor, and constant 
effort is being made to reduce the number of the skilled. As a 
rule, the best paid skill is that of overseership, that is, the 
ability to increase production to the maximum and to reduce the 



64 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

cost of production to the minimum. The first requirement in 
productive enterprise is rapidity of production, not quality of 
material or quality of workmanship. The standard is the appear- 
ance of the product, its sale value and not its use value. As a 
rule, shoddy material leads to shoddy workmanship. In those 
subdivisions of a craft where machinery has not been introduced, 
the workmen have been forced to increase their product even to 
one-third, within the same number of hours, and at the same pay ; 
to accomplish this result required the lessening of the amount of 
work on each article. Carelessness of workmanship follows this 
process, and soon the increased amount of product is turned off 
so easily that wages are reduced, because less skilled men will do 
the work cheaper. 

Under these demoralizing conditions, workmen with any proper 
ambition will seek any other avenue for their sons than that 
of craftsman. 

The demand for men in the service of transportation companies 
for a time appropriated a large number of young men from the 
craft pursuits, at wages less than the craftsman's, the difference 
and more than the difference in earnings being made up by the 
amount they were able to withhold from their employers. Clerk- 
ships offered freedom from the indignities of manual labor, 
and offered the same temptation of increasing their earnings 
by peculation. The cash register and other devices have reduced 
the income of the workers, and led to organization for increased 
wages. 

The custom of giving " tips " and presents has made some low- 
wage occupations more desirable and profitable than many skilled 
trades. 

The piece-work method of production, acting upon the working- 
man's ignorance of the laws governing wages, is operating in the 
same direction, — a reduction of wages and the increase of pro- 
duction at the cost of value to the consumers. 

Unlawful pursuits are followed by hundreds and thousands of 
men who could and would have been good mechanics under such 
conditions as would make the exercise of skill in manual labor 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 65 

easy of attainment and profitable and honorable in use. Petty 
larceny is the outcome of the pettiness of poverty, and grand lar- 
ceny is the outcome of the same insane greed that promotes the 
speculative enterprises. Thousands of women are lost to society 
through the same failure of society to supply remunerative and 
pleasurable employment, and to recognize that it is more honor- 
able to cook a good dinner than to preach a bad sermon. Super- 
intendent of Police Byrnes of New York says : " There are forty 
thousand unfortunate women in New York, and a large part of 
them would lead respectable lives if they could secure employment 
and be treated like human beings. The greater part of this army 
is driven into degraded lives because they cannot make a living 
any other way." 

The theory of the superiority of human development, of which 
the manual-training system is an important factor, is that labor is 
honorable, and that all men — laborers, clergymen, carpenters, 
teachers, track layers, bankers, bakers, cooks and concert singers 
— should have the fullest opportunity of development, physically, 
mentally and morally ; that the woman who brings comfort and 
beauty to the home is more worthy of respect and adulation than 
the woman of society whose only claim is founded in the extrava- 
gant expenditure of money. 

The distaste for manual labor is a natural and proper distaste, 
consequent upon its demoralizing effects physically as well as 
morally and socially. Educated laborers will aspire to more 
pleasurable and profitable employments, and through the leaven- 
ing force of their increased power will vastly improve the con- 
ditions of the less educated. 

Our public schools are for the training of citizens, not mechanics, 
merchants, lawyers or the other professions ; and the youth is not 
correctly trained who enters upon the duties of citizenship with 
contempt for manual pursuits. He is not sufficiently trained for 
citizenship whose acquirements consist in memorizing terms, dates 
and events. To know how to compute interest on money is less 
important than to know how to earn a living ; but to limit educa- 
tion to this acquirement is to degrade the man to the level of the 



66 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

beast. Man must not be divorced from his duty to society. 
4 'Man has two selves; one his natural self, a puny individual, 
and another his higher self, embodied in institutions. Education 
is the preparation of the individual for reciprocal union with 
society, — the preparation of the individual so that he can help 
his feilowmen and in turn receive and appropriate their help." 

" The pen is mightier than the sword" only when the pen tran- 
scribes grand and ennobling thoughts and sentiments, or truly de- 
scribes things and events. To know how to read is important, but 
to know what to read and how to analyze it is an essential quali- 
fication for citizenship in a republic. 

It is well to know how to measure verse, but it is important to 
know how to measure things, and yet more important to know 
how to measure the value of institutions. "If things and reali- 
ties are the material of thought, what material of thought is so 
important for our examination as human institutional growth ? " 

The public school is a workshop, play-ground and civic society; 
its tools are books, maps, pens, paper and pencils ; its studies 
should treat of men, customs, habits and institutions. The 
friends of the new departure, called manual training, would have 
the public understand that love in any work makes a thing of 
beauty, and that structures like the Brooklyn bridge are the 
Shakesperian verse of the nineteenth century ; that statesmanship 
is grander and nobler than mere literary ability ; that human 
institutions, habits and customs are man's created things, — 
processes of centuries of the best work of all. 

The people should be taught that, as Emerson says, "It is 
genius' instinct to find beauty and holiness in new and neces- 
sary facts, in the field and roadside, in the shop and mill." 

Hamerton writes that "Every art which is genuine, and the 
spontaneous expression of a people's taste and feelings, has in it 
some pressure and incommunicable quality, which is a part of the 
great mind of humanity, setting itself forth in the most perfect 
shape." 

The argument that State training of its wards for citizenship 
should be limited to the mere ability to read, write and compute 
numbers, is based on a false theory. 



INDTJSTKIAX EDUCATION. 67 

Our free public schools are the primary training places of 
children and youth for citizenship, and that State fails in its duty 
to the present and future that limits such training to the mere 
text-book instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
history and grammar. 

The public school is not the mere feeder of colleges ; it has the 
larger and more important function as the feeder of the Com- 
monwealth. As births into life supply the wastes by deaths, 
so births into education supply the waste by ignorance. The 
free school must not stand as the poor relation of the college, 
to be fed at the servants' table and patronized as a respectable 
pauper. 

The free common school taught children and the free citizen 
soldiery are the unconquerable guardians of our liberties. 

Citizen soldiers are instructed in the manual of arms by the use 
of arms, and their physical ability as an armed force depends 
upon the practice in use and not in memorizing the instructions of 
the manual. The militia are to be ready at call to use their 
knowledge to defend the State ; they are equipped with weapons 
and disciplined in the skill of their use. They are seldom called 
to use their skill, but the training and the equipment are never 
neglected. 

The children of the Commonwealth are trained in memorizing 
words, numbers, dates, descriptions and rules, but not in the 
knowledge of the use of such instruments, tools and appliances as 
are essential to protect themselves and the State when they are 
called into active life, or of the relations they bear to each other 
as members of one body. 

The Commonwealth of Massachuse.ts stands for the common 
profession of all things, powers and opportunities that would 
make all its citizens sovereign possessors of common education 
and common wealth, in which " the self-activities of the individ- 
ual must be strictly limited by the necessities of perfect central 
administration for the good of the whole." 

The benefits of manual training will be found in increased 
ratio of the knowledge of the people " in pure science and human- 
ity. " Manual training does not mean trade training or tool 



68 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

training. Tool training and tool knowing are the introductory 
methods of expanding the mind as well as educating the hand. 

The demand for reform in methods of school training, and the 
extension of the curriculum to the knowledge and use of tools and 
their products, is not a new demand. The writer of this part of 
the report attempted twenty-two years ago to arouse public atten- 
tion to the importance of the kindergarten and manual instruction . 
As some of the thoughts then expressed have received the season- 
ing of time, he inserts them here. 

Observation and experience prove that if we would know how 
to teach we should first know how to learn, for " Out of the mouths 
of babes and sucklings proceedeth wisdom." It is because school 
committees examine teachers in their knowledge of text questions, 
instead of their knowledge of child natures, that so many truants 
are created. 

The child loves to learn, and would soon exhaust our limited 
supply of knowledge if we could but listen. 

It was no miracle that Christ, at twelve, confounded the doctors 
by asking them questions, as every father and mother can testify. 
But it would be a miracle if doctors of law and divinity, school 
boards and school committees, should learn how and what to 
teach from the hints of childhood and youth. 

The babe teaches the mother how to feed it ; the mother should 
know how much and how often. Nourishment for the body is the 
first requirement. How many prospective mothers are graduated 
with a knowledge of what is nourishing and what is not, of how to 
feed and how to clothe the little ones ? Yet how many infants die 
annually because of ignorance upon these two important matters. 

The next requirement is the knowledge of how to play. The 
piteous pleading of children hungry for amusement is heard in 
every household, — a pleading that soon changes to whining, cry- 
ing and quarrelling, to be answered back with punishment. 

At last, through tribulation and torment, the school age is 
reached, and sentence is pronounced, — five hours each day in the 
stocks, or desks, as they are politely called. Oh, the ache of 
body and mind of the little prisoner, as, seated bolt upright, his 
book of mystical characters, meaningless and void, lying open 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 69 

before Mm, he tries to be a good boy, as mother told him. Thanks 
to the little active brain that so often plays trnant, — leaving the 
unknown a, b, c, for the known realities of apples, berries and 
candy, — he is saved from being a fool. Listen to the joyful 
shout, mark the propelling power and vigor of new-found liberty, 
as homeward the youngster goes, causing parents to tremble at 
the thought of damaged clothes, bruised flesh and broken furni- 
ture, upon which outraged nature will repay itself. Unmindful 
of this daily recurring scene, thoughtless of results, we still go 
on, bragging of our great educational advantages, our excellent 
school-houses and teachers, of the great amount of money 
expended, of the excellent learning displayed on exhibition days. 

Against this system, and the theory upon which it is founded, 
the kindergarten and manual training schools are intelligent pro- 
tests, — protests too long unheeded, as a glance into the appropri- 
ations of the different States will reveal. Vast sums are annually 
given to colleges, where rich men's sons are educated ; to normal 
schools, where the children of the middle class are graduated ; 
and in many States not one cent for kindergarten or manual 
training schools. 

As a result of this experiment, we may learn how to teach 
teachers and how to exhibit growth. Then shall the play of the 
children be looked after, and the barbarism of our school days be 
abolished. The money will show results of hardy, robust boys 
and girls, able to cope with life and its responsibilities, counting 
only idleness and listlessness degrading, ennobling labor to .the 
high standing now held by the professions, and rendering some of 
the occupations and professions useless. 

To do this is the work of time, but, once begun, the people will 
not turn backward. The first step, like a child's, will be but a 
feeble effort, but boldness and strength come with trying. Enough 
has been done to help the helpful ; something must be done to help 
the helpless. 

The children of the poor are the most helpless, and therefore 
should be the first to receive attention. The best help for the 
poor is to help them to help themselves, not by saying help, but by 
helping ; and this must not be by a pauperizing charity, but by 



70 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

rendering Christian justice. Justice to the poor does not mean 
annual or semi-annual presents from those higher in position ; for, 
although presents among equals may be gratifying, gifts from 
superiors to inferiors are demoralizing, and dangerous to public 
weal. The laboring poor must be self-lifted from the debasing 
influence of poverty before they can or will render to civilization 
the full meed of its demands. The poverty of the parents, more 
than auy other cause, compels them to rob their children of the 
weapon of self-defence, — education, — and leaves them with but 
brute force for protection. 

The kindergarten teaches the children how to play, how to 
study, making all interesting, all instructive, all better. The 
manual training system teaches that manual labor is honorable 
and can be made pleasurable and profitable, and through a better 
knowledge of things gives us new and enlarged meaning to words. 

We acquire language in proportion as we acquire knowledge of 
men, things and principles. 

In the past, the accumulation, combination and arrangement of 
words in prose or verse, the translation of modern and dead lan- 
guages into the language of the translator, constituted the chief 
work of the educated classes, or men of letters. Agriculture, 
commerce and manufactures were but crude methods of produc- 
tion and distribution, and any attempt to introduce wiser or better 
methods was looked upon with jealousy and distrust, and was 
met with legal and social opposition, on the plea of protection to 
home industry. Practically, every nation was surrounded by a 
Chinese wall to keep out the foreign and keep in the native prod- 
ucts. Nevertheless, the inevitable law of distribution overcame 
all barriers, until commerce and manufactures, extending their 
sway over larger fields, made trade respectable, and created the 
demand for a business education, and for the first time practical 
mathematics competed with the classics. To-day the school and 
the college, though not yet emancipated from the past, are slowly 
learning the importance of a knowledge of things, as well as of 
words. 

The college graduate enters upon the work of life ignorant of 
industrial operations. He is prepared for the library and study, 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 71 

but not for the manufactory or for the duties of citizenship. The 
subject of his study and thought has rendered him less capable of 
competing with the young man whose school was the counting 
room, and whose teacher was the practical man of business. Let 
it not be understood that a neglect of the knowledge of words is 
advocated. It is the accompanying knowledge of their practical 
application that is needed. However excellent the grammar, how- 
ever clear the expression of thought, words and thoughts are nar- 
rowed by the exclusive system that connects their use with com- 
position alone. The importance of a knowledge of things cannot 
be over-estimated. All hail to Walt Whitman, whose verses keep 
pace with the whirr of machinery, the thud of the ship carpenter's 
hammer and the clicking of type into the printer's stick. 

But it is not the colleges alone that are pouring into active life 
their half -completed products. The common school sends forth 
yearly its thousands of youth, who, shortly brought face to face 
with the occupations, social duties and responsibilities of life, 
stand back amazed before the terrible reality of their utter igno- 
rance. How to apply the hard-gained knowledge of the school- 
room confuses them. What wonder at the demoralized condition 
of so many of the young. As well drill and discipline an army 
with the use of the bow and arrow, and marshal them forth to face 
the shot and shell of the cannon and Gatling gun, as to hope for 
success from the masses, armed as they are with the tools of study 
only, and not educated in the use or the application of their 
knowledge to self-help and mutual helpfulness. The implements 
of industry, their use and application toward these ends, are as an 
unknown language to them. 

Is it a matter of wonder that distaste for the trades is every- 
where manifest — that to be clerks, and not carpenters, is the 
ambition of those whose knowledge of the jack-plane and saw is 
derived only from the shaving-trimmed clothes of the father or the 
mutilated hand of a neighbor, while the clerk and the salesman, 
well-dressed and whole-handed, earn a living with the familiar 
pen of the school-room or the easy motion of a voluble tongue, 
aided by the graceful manners of youth? Will his sweetheart 
smile as graciously upon the blacksmith's apprentice as upon the 



72 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

merchant's clerk? This is the important question he asks himself. 
All that he knows of the dignity of labor is from an occasional 
sermon of a high-salaried clergyman, or the smooth speech of a 
well-dressed merchant or spouting demagogue. The dignity of 
blacksmithing, brick-laying and painting disappear before the 
swarthy face of a son of Vulcan, or the mortar or paint besmeared 
overalls of mason and painter. 

Bold as the assertion may be considered, it is true that the 
child is taught to despise manual labor, and that by the most 
subtle and convincing method, viz., by implication. His reading 
lessons are not of trade and commerce, of the processes of manu- 
factures, of the wonderful manipulation of wood, iron, cotton 
and wool, of the grand achievements of the masses, but of the 
achievements of wealth or of glory. His arithmetic, nearer to 
common life than aught else, is of the counting room, not of the 
measure of lumber, or the application of algebra and geometry to 
wood-turning, jig-sawing, machine or house building. History 
contains little account of the success of the wage-laborers, as 
such, but rather of the achievements of warrior, orator and cap- 
italist. Geography turns to plague him with his ignorance of his 
own State and nation. He knows how they are bounded, but not 
how they are peopled, what the people do to get a living, or of 
their relations one to the other. 

What we want, then, is to commence at the beginning, among the 
masses, — the ignorant, degraded, because neglected, masses,— 
and provide an educational system that shall be, in the words of 
Dr. Harris, " the preparation of the individual for the reciprocal 
union with society, — the preparation of the individual so that he 
can help his fellow men, and in turn receive and appropriate their 
help." 

It is the duty of the Commonwealth to commence the experi- 
ment of teaching the true dignity of labor and the dignity of 
citizenship. Let somewhat of the taxes go toward this desired 
purpose. Better lead in the van of this progressive age than to 
be overcome and trampled under the feet of the people, educated 
above honest toil but not above dishonest accumulation. For the 
danger is not wholly in the direction of the illiterate mechanic, 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 73 

but in the unemployed classes, who look upon labor as disgrace- 
ful, and any method of procuring a subsistence without work as 
honorable. Does not the success of the adventurous speculator, 
stock and merchandise gambler, official speculator and irregular 
financier invite the thousands to new and untried fields of 
robbery ? 

The poverty of the parents and the greed of capitalists force 
the children to labor for the common sustenance ; and, once at 
work under factory discipline, they are compelled, from the 
nature of the work, to follow the monotonous labor from morning 
till night, midst jar of machinery that tries the less tender nerves 
of older people, breathing air full of the scent of oil and wood, 
and, like delicate plants, fading away for want of sunlight. 

The manual training system advocated by this Commission does 
not contemplate a course of training based upon the theory that 
children should be trained in such occupations or trades as the 
financial or social position of their parents would warrant. We 
agree " that the serious occupation of life cannot be imposed upon 
children without dwarfing their human nature, physically, intel- 
lectually and morally, and producing arrested development. Not 
only the games of youth, but the youth's freedom from the cares 
of mature life, should be insured to him, if the best preparation is 
to be made for manhood. It is sad to know that very many 
children are dwarfed by family necessity, which compels them to 
bear the weights and cares of mature years. The street gamin in 
the city is preternaturally acute, but is not in process of growth 
toward ideal manhood. Later on he will be found suffering from 
premature old age, in every respect a wasted human life, burnt 
out before it could develop its moral and intellectual ideals. He 
will have a 'Punch and Judy' face, such as Dickens ascribes to 
the stunted products of London street education. Students of 
anthropology tell us that man surpasses the animals so much in 
his mature life because he has a so much longer period of helpless 
infancy. He passes through a hundred grades of ascent above 
the brute, using all his forces in learning to walk on his hind legs, 
to use articulate speech for intercommunication, to dress himself 
in clothes, and to put on that far subtler clothing of customs and 



74 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

usages which hold back and conceal his animal propensities, and 
substitute courtesy toward others for selfish, natural impulse. 
Were it not for this diversion of the forces of childhood, man 
might develop like the animals the ability to walk immediately 
after birth, and use his bundle of intellectual instincts at once, 
without the necessity of a long process of education." 

A knowledge of things is a great aid in awakening not only 
consciousness of his higher self, but a stimulant to his dormant 
powers. 

Proud as we are of the advance made from past conditions, we 
are yet neglectful of our duty to the children and the youth in the 
school and out of the school. But a small percentage of our 
youth enter the high school, and not more than half of those who 
enter complete the course. Not more than twenty per cent, of 
those who enter the grammar school remain long enough to 
graduate, and of all who enter the grammar school at least one- 
half will be found in the two lower classes. 

The expansion of governmental functions that are certain to 
follow the present order of the industrial and financial system will 
find a constituency not qualified for the duties of self-government. 

In the early part of the century, before the great subdivisions 
of labor, consequent upon machine methods and machine oper- 
ations, a graduate of the district school was better qualified for 
his life duties than is the graduate of the school of to-day quali- 
fied for the enlarged duties upon which he is called to act, save 
where something of the new method has been adopted. 

Some of the evils of continuous, monotonous labor have been 
lessened by increasing the age limit at which children can be 
employed, and reductions in the hours of labor ; but this work 
must be supplemented by the filling of the time gained with oppor- 
tunities of training the mind and body so that our youth shall 
know something of the why as well as of the how. 

The Commonwealth should teach that labor is more than a mere 
commodity. Labor is the material life of the world, "Man's 
creative attribute." 

" Work is the law of life, and its binding force upon the indi- 
vidual increases the progress of civilization. The savage must 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 75 

work or perish, and the civilized man must work or compel another 
to work for him ; and it is this alternative proposition that 
moulded, and still controls, with an iron hand, existing educa- 
tional systems. We do not train men to be useful, but train them 
to make others useful. We assume the existence of class distinc- 
tions, and take measures to perpetuate them, by training men, not 
to work themselves, but to make others work for them. And this 
solecism in education is the more glaring in a country like ours, 
whose organic law asserts the equal rights of man. But every 
great abuse or ignorance, or superstition, has behind it a great 
cause, and the cause of this fundamental defect in our education 
dates back to Greece. The revival of learning was a revival of 
Greek methods, which grew out of a social system whose every 
attribute was the opposite of ours, — a social system whose corner- 
stone was slavery, as the corner-stone of ours is liberty." 

" The philosopher may cease to speculate, the poet to sing, the 
lawyer to plead, the priest to warn, the doctor to heal, and the 
world, with all its multiform concerns, goes on. But let the hand 
of labor be unlifted, and there ensues an unfruitful pause. Silence 
in the field, the factory and the shop means want equally in the 
palace and the hut. And shall not the hand, whose cunning feeds, 
clothes, houses and warms the whole human race, — shall it not be 
trained?" 

" A studied effort is now being made by the would-be taskmas- 
ters of mankind to re-enslave the laborer by treating his labor as 
if it were a mere commodity. But, while labor may be contracted 
for, it is not a commodity, because its delivery cannot be 
enforced. It is not a commodity, because no power can reduce it 
to possession in the hands of the alleged purchaser. It is not a 
commodity, because, notwithstanding the debtor may possess fifty 
years' store of it, not the smallest part can be extorted by legal 
process. It is not a commodity, because it is a spark of divinity, 
— man's sole creative attribute. As Carlyle well says, i It is the 
truest emblem of God, and the predestined rule of the earth.' '* 

" Numbers of 4 brainy 7 persons have been graciously willing to 
do the thinking for the rest of mankind, provided the rest of man- 
kind would house them, clothe them, feed them and otherwise 



76 MANUAL, TRAINING AND 

provide for all their physical wants. And it is worthy of note 
with what unanimity it has been agreed among the ' thinkers ' that 
they ought to occupy all the fine houses, wear all the good clothes 
and eat all the delicate food ; and they are equally agreed that 
huts, rags and corn-bread are good enough for the hand-worker. 
But it is none the less true, as Ruskin so pertinently says, that 
' Your wealth, your amusement, your pride, would all be alike 
impossible but for those whom you scorn or forget. . . . The 
sailor, wrestling with the sea's rage ; the quiet student, poring 
over his work or his vial ; the common worker, without praise and 
nearly without bread, fulfilling his task as your horses drag your 
carts, hopeless and spurned of all, — -these are the men by whom 
England lives/ Nevertheless, it is for the 'thinker' almost ex- 
clusively, and for the hand-worker not at all, that the schools have 
hitherto existed." 

' ' Five hundred years ago famines came through failure of har- 
vests and lack of transportation ; but now they occur because a 
few, with avaricious hand, seize all the garnered fruits of labor. 
That this indifference to suffering among large masses of fellow- 
creatures is not natural, however, but the result of vicious educa- 
tion, is clear, since the humane impulse to deliver suddenly im- 
perilled life is instantaneous, universal and overwhelming. When 
the spectacle of poverty or misery in any form shall prompt to 
saving action, as definite and vigorous as the voluntary impulse to 
rescue the drowning man is natural and irresistible, then and not 
till then will the race have attained a high moral plane." 

Horace Mann in his last report says : " It is the blindest folly 
to contemplate men only as producers, to estimate only their pro- 
ductive capacity with that of perfected machinery ; but, even if 
we were to narrow our vision to this microscopic view of the real 
issue, we should see, upon scientific investigation, that education 
is the essential element of success in the accumulation of material 
prosperity. It is a remarkable fact that human progress, even in 
regard to the worldly interests of the race, did not begin with those 
improvements which are most closely allied to material prosperity. 
One would have supposed, beforehand, improvements would com- 
mence with the near rather than with the remote. Yet mankind 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 77 

had made great advances in astronomy and in geometry, and other 
mathematical sciences ; in the writing of history, in oratory and 
in poetry ; it is supposed by many to have reached the highest 
point of yet attained perfection in painting and in sculpture, and 
in those kinds of architecture which may be called regal or relig- 
ious, centuries before the great mechanical discoveries and inven- 
tions which now bless the world were brought to light. And the 
question has often forced itself upon reflecting minds, why was 
this preposterousness, this inversion of what would appear to be 
the natural order of progress? Why was it, for instance, that 
men should have learned the course of the stars and the revolu- 
tions of the planets before they found out how to make a good 
wagon wheel ? "Why was it that they built the Parthenon and the 
Coliseum before they knew how to construct a comfortable, healthy 
dwelling-house? Why did they construct the Roman Aqueduct 
before they constructed a saw-mill ? Or why did they achieve the 
noblest models in eloquence, in poetry and in the drama, before 
they invented movable types? I think we have now arrived at a 
point where we can unriddle this enigma. The labor of the world 
has been performed by ignorant men. 

" As soon as some degree of intelligence dawned upon the 
workman, then a corresponding degree of improvement in his 
work followed. At first this intelligence was confined to a very 
small number, and therefore improvements were few, and they 
followed each other only after long intervals. They uniformly 
began in the nations and among the classes where there was most 
intelligence. The middle classes of England and the people of 
Holland and Scotland have done a hundred times more than all 
the eastern hemisphere beside. What single improvement in art 
or discovery in science has ever originated in Spain, or through- 
out the vast empire of the Russias? But just in proportion as 
intelligence — that is, education — has quickened and stimulated 
a greater and a greater number of minds, just in the same propor- 
tion have inventions and discoveries increased in their wonderful- 
ness, and in the rapidity of their succession. 

"For the creation of wealth, then, — for the existence of a 
wealthy people and a wealthy nation, — intelligence is the grand 



78 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

condition. The number of improvers will increase as the intel- 
lectual constituency, if I may so call it, increases. In former 
times, and in most parts of the world, even at the present day, 
not one man in a million has ever had such a development of 
mind as made it possible for him to become a contributor to art 
or science. Let this development proceed, and contributions 
numberless and of inestimable value will be sure to follow. That 
political economy, therefore, which busies itself about capital and 
labor, supply and demand, interest and rents, favorable and 
unfavorable balances of trade, but leaves out of account the 
element of a wide-spread mental development, is naught but a 
stupendous folly." 

The education of children, then, is the wisest means to secure 
material prosperity. Here in Massachusetts the danger is immi- 
nent, for here the population is more dense than the average of all 
other States taken together, and density of population has always 
been the proximate cause of social inequality. 

" If this be so, are we not in danger of naturalizing and domes- 
ticating among ourselves those hideous evils which are always 
engendered between capital and labor, when all the capital is in 
the hands of one class and all the labor is thrown upon another? 

"Now, surely, nothing but universal education can counter- 
work this tendency to the domination of capital and the servility 
of labor. If one class possesses all the wealth and the education, 
while the residue of society is ignorant and poor, it matters not 
by what name the relation between them may be called ; the 
latter, in fact and in truth, will be the servile dependents and 
subjects of the former. But if education be equally diffused, it 
will draw property after it by the strongest of all attractions ; 
for such a thing never did happen, and never can happen, as that 
an intelligent and practical body of men should be permanently 
poor. Property and labor in different classes are essentially 
antagonistic ; but property and labor in the same class are essen- 
tially fraternal." 

The hunger and thirst of the people for more knowledge, more 
wealth, more political and religious health, cannot be satisfied 
with learned dissertations upon obsolete educational, social and 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 79 

economic dogmas, neither will the cry of economy drown the 
pleading voice of the child. 

The little red school- house did its work well, because the 
cottage home, the little white church, the little shop and the town 
meeting were neighbors co-operating in the training of youth for 
the duties of life. 

School-houses must keep pace with the large manufactories in 
equipment, and with the higher arts in beauty, and the school 
yards should increase in dimensions as the population becomes 
more dense. The play-ground should be a part of the educational 
opportunity for the children, as the Holmes Field of Harvard Col- 
lege furnishes opportunity for the physical culture of its students. 

Church and State cannot and ought not to be united until, as in 
the days of the Pilgrims, all are of one faith ; but the true religion 
of a common fatherhood and brotherhood can be revealed without 
dogma. 

Homes will multiply as self-respect and self-dependence, through 
mutual respect and mutual dependence, increase. 

The little shop has gone, but its beneficent educational influences 
can remain. 

The school-house is a workshop, and the hand which learns how 
to use a pencil can be taught to draw pictures of use and beauty. 
From the mud pies to the clay maps is an easy gradation. The 
jack-knife, the plane and saw can be used with greater safety and 
to a wiser purpose under a system and an instructor than out of 
the school-house without an instructor, and this training will in- 
crease the interest of the pupil, not only in this work, but in the 
usual studies of the school. 

The civilization of these closing years of the nineteenth century 
is materialistic. The order of so-called progress is toward aggre- 
gation rather than diffusion or distribution. Population flows 
toward the cities, wealth flows toward the few. Competition has 
become so fierce that combinations of the wealthy seek to drive 
out their weaker competitors. Factory is joined to factory, mine 
to mine and railroad to railroad, to destroy the competition which 
was their former boast. Other men combine to resist the down- 
ward tendency of the standard of their living, consequent upon the 



80 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

i 

competition of cheaper and more ignorant men. Contests between 
competitors have become frequent. Class is arrayed against class, 
and in this mad rush for wealth and mastery free institutions are 
endangered. 

The machinery of to-day destroys the utility of the skill of 
yesterday, and the morrow brings no hope. The revolution now 
in progress will continue. Shall it come as a cloud, through the 
ignorance and despair of poverty, or shall it come through the 
peaceful processes and enlarged opportunities of education, freely 
furnished ? 



Recommendations. 
We respectfully submit the following recommendations : — 

1. That the principles and practice of the kindergarten be 
taught in the normal schools. 

2. That the principles and practice of manual training, so far 
as applicable in the primary and grammar schools, be taught in 
the normal schools. 

3. That the principles and practice of domestic science be 
taught in the normal schools. 

4. That high schools, in which a course in the mechanic arts, 
approved by the Board of Education, shall be taught to boys, be 
established and maintained in all cities having a population of 
twenty thousand or more. 

5. That high schools, in which a course in domestic science, 
including sewing and cooking, approved by the Board of Edu- 
cation, shall be taught to girls, be established and maintained in 
all cities having a population of twenty thousand or more. 

6. Any city or town which, though not required so to do by 
law, shall nevertheless establish one or more schools for manual 
training or industrial education, open to boys or girls of fourteen 
or more years of age, and with courses of study and exercises 
approved by the Board of Education, shall receive from the State 
treasury an amount of money equal to the amount specifically 
appropriated by such city or town for the support of such school 
or schools in each and every year, provided the amount paid out 






INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 81 

from the State treasury to any one city or town in any one year 
shall not exceed five thousand dollars. 

7. That the State make provision for the training of teachers 
of the mechanic arts, by establishing at the Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology or at the "Worcester Polytechnic Institute, or 
at both these institutions, State scholarships open to such young 
men as, being otherwise well qualified, shall promise to become, 
after their course of training, teachers in the public schools of 
this State. 

8. That the duty of advising with and aiding school committees 
of towns and cities in relation to the introduction of kindergarten 
instruction into the public schools be made the special duty of an 
agent of the Board of Education. 

9. That the Board of Education be by law required to appoint 
an agent whose special duty shall be to advise and aid in the 
introduction of manual training and industrial education into the 
public schools, and to visit and report upon all schools in which 
such training and education are carried on. 

louisa parsons hopkins, 
edwin p. seaver. 
geo. e. McNeill. 



APPENDIX 



183] 



Appendix A 



A PLAN FOR A MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL IN THE 
CITY OF BOSTON.* 

By EDWIN P. SEAVER, Superintendent of Public Schools. 



The grade of the proposed school and its relations to existing 
public schools are best marked by naming it a high school, while 
the words mechanic arts indicate the characteristic feature of its 
course of study. The curriculum of this school, like that of the 
other high schools, should begin when that of the grammar school 
ends. It should be three years long. The requirements for ad- 
mission should be a grammar-school diploma or the equivalent 
examination, age not less than thirteen, and a good character. 

The school time, twenty -five hours a week, should.be shared by 
shop work, book work and drawing, in about the proportion of ten 
hours to each of the two former and five hours to the last. But if 
it should be thought best to introduce military drill into the curric- 
ulum of this school, — and there are good reasons to be urged for 
doing so, — the needed time could be taken from the book work 
and the drawing equally. Then the distribution of time would be 
as follows : — 

Hours per Week. 

Shop work, 10 

Book work, 9 

Drawing, 4 

Military drill,f 2 

Total, 25 

Before speaking of the shop work in detail, it may be well to 
dispose of the other branches of the school work in a few words. 



* Reprinted from Boston School Document No. 15 of the year 1889. 
f If military drill formed no part of the instruction, the book work and the draw- 
ing would each be increased one hour a week. 



[85] 



86 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The book work should be in English language, in mathematics, 
and in science ; but a part or the whole of the science could be 
replaced by a foreign language, if circumstances made it desirable 
for any considerable number of boys to make such a substitution. 
This might well be the case with boys preparing to enter some 
higher institution of learning, as, for example, the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology. 

In English language, the chief effort should be in the direction 
of training to clear and correct use of language in both oral and 
written expression. Literature and history would not be directly 
the subjects of study in this department, but they would supply 
the material to be worked upon ; and thus incidentally the pupils 
would become acquainted with a few works of the great writers. 

The mathematics should include elementary algebra, plane and 
solid geometry, descriptive geometry and plane trigonometry. A 
thorough acquaintance with these branches has been found essen- 
tial to the best success, both in drawing and in mechanical con- 
struction. 

The science should be physics and chemistry. The method of 
teaching both these branches should be that known as the labora- 
tory method. If circumstances make this method impracticable, 
— as is the case now in some high schools, — the time would 
be better spent in the study of a foreign language. The day 
for mere book work and lecture notes in science has gone by. 
Some of the apparatus used in the laboratories may be made in 
the shops by the boys, but not all. There is an important limit 
'to be observed in this matter. Boys should not be set to making 
their own chemical or physical apparatus, unless the knowledge to 
be gained from such making be at least as valuable as the knowl- 
edge to be gained from any other kind of shop work that could 
fill the same time. To set boys to making things for no other 
reason than to save money in the running expenses of the school 
is wrong ; for it is to sacrifice the boys to the school, whereas the 
school exists only for the benefit of the boys. 

The drawing should be carried on with constant reference to 
the shop work, which it is designed to assist, and from which in 
turn it will receive assistance. As educational agencies, drawing 
and construction belong together as two parts of one whole. 
Neither is fully efficacious without the other. Like the two blades 
of a pair of scissors, each requires the aid of the other to do its 
own work. The drawing teacher will, therefore, keep the shop 
work constantly in view, co-operating with it, and using it as the 
chief source from which to take illustrations. The shop teacher, 
on his side, will see that every piece of work, however simple, be 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 87 

executed from drawings made by the pupil. Thus the whole work 
of the drawing rooms and shops becomes one course of practice 
in the expression of ideas, through drawing and construction. 
The drawing will be chiefly of the kind known as mechanical 
drawing ; but the aesthetic side of the work should be provided for 
by adding a reasonable amount of free-hand drawing. 

The shop work will be described first in outline and then in 
more detail. 

The first year's shop work should consist of carpentry and 
wood turning chiefly ; but, for the aesthetic side of the work, 
there should also be a considerable number of lessons in wood 
carving. The year's work should be drawn up in a fully de- 
tailed series of lessons or exercises, which should be required of 
all pupils alike, the whole class beginning each new exercise in the 
series simultaneously. Then there should be drawn up a parallel 
series of supplementary exercises, to be given, as occasion may 
require, to those quicker pupils who complete the regular exercises 
in less than the allowed time. 

In the shop work of the second year the wood-work is continued 
and becomes pattern making. This is accompanied and followed 
by a brief course in moulding and casting. The material used 
for casting may be either plaster or soft metal. The latter is 
easily managed, and may be melted over and over again, thus 
avoiding waste. The same may be said of brass. Although 
there appears to have been little experience with the casting and 
finishing of brass thus far in the schools, there is good reason for 
believing that experiments in this direction would prove very sat- 
isfactory. Iron cannot advantageously be used, for it would 
necessitate the expense and the trouble of a cupola. Besides, the 
process of iron casting, to be of much educational value, would 
involve more knowledge of metallurgy than could well be contem- 
plated in a school of the character now proposed. 

Whatever iron castings might be needed for the third year's 
work could best be procured at a commercial foundry in the usual 
way ; that is to say, the boys would make the patterns of the cast- 
ings they needed, send them to the foundry, and receive the castings 
in due time. It would, doubtless, be found practicable occasionally 
to arrange a visit to the foundry by a class when castings were to 
be made from their patterns, or at other times. 

After the pattern making, moulding and casting, which alto- 
gether should occupy twelve or thirteen weeks in the early part of 
the second year, should come the forging, which will occupy the 
remaining two-thirds of the year. The forging begins with sim- 
ple exercises in bending, drawing out and upsetting ; then follows 



88 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

welding, with exercises of increasing difficulty, requiring more and 
more knowledge and skill ; and the course concludes with each 
boy's forging and tempering a set of tools which he will use next 
year in the machine shop,. 

Supplementary exercises in forging should be provided for the 
quicker boys. There is an endless variety of ornamental wrought- 
iron work that may be suggested for supplementary exercises, 
although some ornamental work should have a place in the 
required exercises. Thus the aesthetic side of the work would 
receive due attention. Ornamental wrought-iron work is now so 
much in vogue that the boys would find it very interesting, both 
in designing and in working out their designs. Their designs 
should first be made on paper, and submitted to the teacher for 
criticism. 

Not until the designs have been approved does work at the 
forge begin. By this double process of making designs and work- 
ing them out in material is the great lesson learned that mere pret- 
tiness, or beauty even, in a design is not necessarily an element of 
value. If a design be unworkable in the material intended, it is 
worthless. 

The shop work of the third year should be almost wholly in the 
machine shop, consisting of exercises in chipping and filing and of 
exercises at the machine. 

After the prescribed exercises of the year have been done, each 
pupil should be ready to undertake, either alone or in partnership 
with one or more other pupils, some project, or complete piece of 
mechanical work, which may serve as the crowning exercise of the 
whole instruction in mechanic arts. These projects correspond to 
the graduation theses of academic courses of study. 

A project is begun in the drawing room, where the plans and 
shop drawings are prepared from given specifications. Then the 
patterns are made in the wood- working shops. The iron castings 
are best obtained at a commercial foundry, for reasons already 
explained. The pupils take the castings to the machine shop, 
where they do the fitting and finishing, and where the whole proj- 
ect is put together and tested. In this way the boys, in their 
third year, are taken over the whole ground of their previous 
instruction in mechanic arts, and their knowledge is unified and 
solidified. The projects usually undertaken by two or more boys 
in partnership are steam engines, dynamos, speed lathes, steam 
pumps, and other such machines. Some of the schools now pos- 
sess machines thus constructed by pupils which have been doing 
good work for some years. At Baltimore is a steam engine, made 
by the pupils of the school, which furnishes all the power used in 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 89 

the shops. At Chicago is a smaller engine, made in the school by 
pupils, which is used for driving some of the machinery of the 
shops. In the Naval School at Annapolis, where instruction in 
the mechanic arts is given to the cadets, there are good steam 
engines of various patterns, all the work of past graduating 
classes. At Cleveland is a forty-light dynamo, made by the boys, 
which will be used to light the machine shop. 

Machines like these are undertaken only by several boys work- 
ing together ; for single boys the projects must be simpler and 
less time-consuming. As has been stated already, the boys' work 
on these projects begins with the preparation of drawings from 
given specifications. To originate designs of machinery, or to 
make specifications in accordance with scientific principles, would 
be too high a task for the boys to undertake at this stage of 
advancement. They must therefore take the designs and specifi- 
cations of their projects from their teacher, or from some other 
competent authority. These having been obtained, all the rest of 
the work, save the casting, is the boys' own work, done under the 
general advice and guidance of the teachers. 

Projects are not necessarily confined to the third year. They 
may be advantageously introduced near the end of the carpentry 
course in the first year, or near the end of the whole wood-work- 
ing course in the second year, or near the end of the forging 
course in the same year. These would be especially desirable for 
those boys who had finished the prescribed exercises in an excel- 
lent manner, and in less than the allowed time. Boys of this sort 
there will always be ; and the highest success of the school will 
depend on keeping such boys interested and busy. Pieces in 
cabinet making ornamented with wood carving, and pieces in orna- 
mental wrought-iron work, would be quite within the boys' power 
to execute satisfactorily ; and such pieces would serve well, not 
only to display acquired skill in workmanship, but also to bring 
into play the artistic feeling. As to the material used in any of 
the projects, if its cost should be worth considering, the boys 
should be expected to provide it or pay for it, in case they desire 
to possess the completed article. All projects, however, should 
be held by the school so long as they may be needed for exhibi- 
tion. 

Such in outline is the shop work which experience has shown to 
be practicable and useful, resulting in a good degree of general 
mechanical skill and a high degree of mechanical intelligence. 
The main features of this shop-work course may be regarded as 
permanent, although the details may be expected to change from 
year to year, as taste or convenience may suggest. Neverthe- 



90 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

less, at the outset the proposed school will need a fully detailed 
course of shop work, showing all the particular exercises, both 
required and supplementary, together with suggestions of suitable 
projects for the end of the whole course and of other periods ; 
and such a detailed course would be presented here in this report, 
with wood-cuts to illustrate it, were it not, fortunately, so easy 
to refer to a recently published book,* containing all the needed 
descriptions and illustrations. The exercises in carpentry, wood 
turning, pattern making, wood carving, forging, chipping, filing, 
shaping and finishing, fully described and pictured in this book, 
as executed in the St. Louis Manual Training School, leave 
little to be desired ; and these may be adopted with all the more 
confidence, since the other schools have adopted substantially the 
same. For exercises in moulding and casting, reference may be 
made to the courses of some other schools, especially to that of 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Also there are good 
examples of ornamental wrought-iron work to be taken from the 
schools at Chicago and Philadelphia. From these sources of in- 
formation is derived the following brief statement of the contents 
of the various courses of shop work that should have place in the 
proposed school : — 

1. Exercises in carpentry. Rip and cross-cut sawing. Pieces 
of rough stock sawed out to given dimensions. Planing pieces of 
board to given width and thickness, — true faces, straight and 
square edges. Squaring the ends of pieces. Nailing pieces to- 
gether to form a box. Making a mitre box. Testing the mitre 
box by cutting four pieces for a square frame with mitre joints. 
Making a picture frame from a piece of moulding, — mitre joints. 
Paring with a chisel, (a) the end of a square piece in the form of 
a square pyramid, (b) the other end in the form of a semi-cylinder, 
(c) a circular disc from a piece of board, (d) an elliptical disc 
from a piece of board. | Joints : a half-and-half open joint, a 
half-and-half closed joint with pieces at right angles, the same 
with pieces at oblique angles (60° and 120°), a frame of four 
pieces joined with half-and-half closed joints with the projecting 
ends finished in semi-cylindrical form and the edges chamfered, 
an open mortise and tenon joint, a double open mortise and tenon 
joint, a closed mortise and tenon joint with projecting end of tenon 
rounded, a double closed mortise and tenon joint with projecting 
ends of tenons rounded, an oblique (45°) mortise and tenon joint, 
a half dovetailed joint halved together, a dovetailed joint with 

* " The Manual Training School," by C. M. Woodward. Boston : 1887. 
t If wood-working were pursued in the grammar schools, the earlier exercises in 
this schedule could be replaced by exercises of a more advanced character. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 91 

a single tongue, a half dovetailed mortise and tenon joint with a 
key, a half -blind dowel- joint, a small door with one panel, two 
pieces of board dovetailed together, a box dovetailed together 
(which may be a tool-box with the small door above mentioned 
for a cover) , blind dovetails, a drawer. Completed articles like 
the following, which were among those made in one school by 
members of one class : oak tool chest, antique oak table, walnut 
footstool, cherry card box, shoe-blacking stool, bob sled, wall 
cabinet, centre table, book shelves, book case, mantel cabinet, 
music stand, wash bench, screen door, chiffonier. Several of these 
articles required wood carving as well as joinery, and would, there- 
fore, be properly placed after the exercises in that branch. 

2. Exercises in wood carving. These are from the Toledo 
Manual Training School, and are described and pictured in Wood- 
ward's u Manual Training School" (pages 68-71). Grooving or 
fluting across the grain ; the same with the grain ; the same both 
ways, the design being a series of rectangles, one within another ; 
circular grooving ; convex panel with tracery ; engraved panel 
with flowing curves ; long panel with engraved tendril ; carved 
square panel ; quadrifolium in relief ; long panel with carved vine 
in relief ; concave circular ground on square panel with design 
carved in high relief ; carved diagonal panel with design of over- 
lapping leaves sharply undercut. 

3. Exercises in wood-turning. Turning a cylinder, a cone, a 
stepped cylinder, a double-stepped cylinder, a double cone, cylin- 
ders and cones combined, small cylinder between larger ones, con- 
vex beads, concave beads, sharp-pointed beads, long curves convex 
and concave and both combined, tool handles, balusters, table 
legs, dumb-bells, base- ball bats, hat pins, drawer knobs, and vari- 
ous other things of like kind ; face-plate work, three or four pieces 
to illustrate the method, rosette, cylindrical and oval cavities ; 
chuck work, as a hollow-stepped cylinder, rings and balls ; extra 
pieces, as cups, goblets, saucers, napkin rings, croquet balls, hol- 
low cylindrical or spherical boxes, and similar articles made of 
hard wood and finely finished. 

4. Exercises in pattern making and moulding. Exercises in 
moulding with patterns already made (left over by last year's 
class) , in order to learn the use of a pattern ; three prescribed 
exercise patterns to be made from the pupils' own drawings, 
figured with the usual allowances for draft, shrinkage and finish ; 
plaster casts of three patterns ; from two to six other patterns 
(according to time and ability), each being tested either with 
plaster or with white metal ; some of the patterns after being 
tested by plaster castings taken to ah iron foundry, the iron cast- 



92 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

ings there made to be kept for subsequent exercises in the machine 
shop. 

Articles suggested for casting: a simple grate, a bracket, a 
crank arm, a hose nozzle, a straight-joint pipe coupling, an elbow- 
joint pipe coupling, a T-joint pipe coupling, a globe valve, a pillow 
block, a pulley, a sheave, a cone pulley. Also various ornamental 
or useful articles in zinc or brass. 

5. Exercises in forging. All the more difficult exercises to be 
forged in cold lead before being forged in hot iron. 

A bent ring (round iron) ; a bent double ring, or figure 8 ; the 
end of a rod bent in form of a ring ; drawing out and upsetting, 
as in nails, staples and bolts ; a hasp (tapering, bending and 
twisting) ; angle irons (flat bend and edge bend) ; a hook hanger ; 
a bent brace ; a fork ; a trace-chain cross-bar (upset at middle 
and punched, ends tapered and bent) ; fuller piece (flat piece of 
iron fullered, drawn out at each end and swaged) ; round piece of 
iron upset at middle and squared ; a lap weld ; a tongue weld ; a 
flat ring or ferule, welded ; a welded eye ; a piece of chain with 
welded links, ring, hook and swivel ; welded bolt heads ; a twisted 
open-work handle for fire tools ; riveting (the handle riveted to a 
fire shovel) ; two pieces of boiler plate riveted together ; a pair 
of blacksmith's tongs ; a lathe dog ; tempering ; forging and tem- 
pering a set of machine-shop tools (cold chisel, threading tool, 
round-nose tool, side tool, parting tool, diamond point and inside 
tool). Also pieces of ornamental work, as hall lamps, lamp 
stands, window grating, fences, gates, cresting, etc. 

6. Exercises in chipping and filing accurately to given di- 
mensions. Material, cast iron. 

A square prism or a cube, a rectangular block with chamfered 
edges, a hexagonal prism, a piece for interior finish of angles, two 
pieces fitted together with square tongue and groove, the same 
with dovetail tongue and groove (die block), two pieces halved 
together in form of a Greek cross, hexagonal bolt heads and nuts, 
a hexagonal wrench, slot-piece, valve seat, gears, chipping off 
rivets. Exercises with machine tools: some of the foregoing 
repeated with planer and shaper and finished with the file ; also, 
a plain cylinder, a taper-piece, a right and a left handed screw, a 
finished handle, bolts and nuts, a lathe dog, a face plate, a pin 
and flanged nut, shaft couplings, a compass joint (pair of com- 
passes or calipers), a try-square (for machinists' use), a jack 
screw, a bench screw, taps and dies. The latter part of the third 
year will be taken for fitting, finishing and setting up the steam 
engines, lathes, dynamos or other pieces of machinery that have 
been selected for final projects. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 93 

These courses of shop work are recommended as good courses 
to begin with, being the outcome of considerable experience ; but 
there is no reason why desirable modifications may not be intro- 
duced at any time. Indeed, there is no school in which the shop 
work has been precisely the same from year to year. Small 
changes regarded as improvements are frequently made, but the 
main features have not been disturbed. 

The accommodations necessary for carrying on the course of 
study above described consist of school-rooms, drawing rooms 
and workshops, with their appropriate adjuncts. In deciding on 
the number and size of these, there is one important fact to be 
kept in mind ; namely, that each school desk, work bench and 
drawing table will be occupied by three different pupils in the 
course of a day ; so that the number of desks, benches or tables 
need never exceed one-third of the number of the pupils to be 
accommodated. In the ordinary school, each pupil is allowed the 
exclusive possession of one desk, which he occupies all day, so 
that the number of desks must be equal to the number of pupils. 
But while, in the proposed school, two-thirds of the usual number 
of desks may be dispensed with, there will be needed some pro- 
vision by which each pupil can keep his books safe from being 
meddled with while not in use. The same need will arise also in 
the drawing rooms and workshops ; indeed, in every room the 
occupants of which change from time to time during a day or 
week. This need should be met by providing a system of lockers, 
— one locker for the exclusive use of every occupant of the room. 

Two plans for doing this have found favor, which, for the sake 
of having names, may be called the key-board plan and the drawer- 
rack plan. 

By the first or key-board plan, each bench, desk or table has 
as many locked drawers as it is to have different occupants, so that 
each occupant may have exclusive use of one drawer. All the 
keys belonging to the members of one class are kept on the class 
key-board ; and this key-board is inaccessible at all times, except 
when the class is in the room. The teacher keeps the key-boards 
safe when not in use, and has as many of them as he has different 
classes in the room. 

By the second or drawer-rack plan, each bench, desk or table 
is provided with one place in which a drawer may be kept while in 
use ; but while not in use all the drawers are kept in a rack at the 
side of the room ; the intention being that the drawers belonging 
to any one class shall be removed from the racks and placed in the 
benches, desks or tables at the beginning of the class session, 
and put back again at the end of the session. When the drawers 



94 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

are placed in the rack, the teacher's key with one motion locks or 
unlocks them all. Thus the teacher's trouble in working the plan 
is very slight. 

The choice between these two plans will be governed by circum- 
stances. For example, when the drawers are large and heavy, as 
those containing carpenter's tools usually would be, the key-board 
plan would be the preferable one. But when the drawers are 
small, so as to be carried across the room without difficulty, the 
drawer-rack plan would have greater advantages. In school-rooms, 
since a school desk with three drawers in it large enough to be 
serviceable is an impossibility, the drawer-rack plan would be the 
only practicable one. The same plan has been found an excelleut 
one for the drawing rooms and the machine shop ; also for the 
blacksmith's shop, with the further advantage in the latter case 
that the drawers need not be taken from the racks. 

The great merit of these two plans is, that they reduce the 
number of desks, benches or tables necessary for a given num- 
ber of pupils to a minimum. The second or drawer-rack plan 
should be preferred whenever practicable, for it is the most 
economical plan yet devised for furnishing rooms that are to be 
occupied successively by different classes. 

The next point to be considered is the size of the classes or 
divisions ; for upon the number of pupils to be instructed at one 
time depends the number of desks, benches or tables in each 
room, and the size of the room. The experience of mechanic arts 
schools thus far seems to have fixed the number twenty-four as 
the largest number of pupils that can conveniently receive instruc- 
tion at one time. Although in some book studies more than 
twenty-four pupils can be well instructed at one time, yet in the 
shop instruction, as in chemical and physical laboratories, divisions 
of twenty-four have been found fully large enough — sometimes 
even too large — for really profitable work. The time may indeed 
come when teaching skill in the mechanic arts will be as highly 
developed as it now is in the academic branches. When that time 
comes, it may be practicable to make classes in shops and labora- 
tories as large as those in school-rooms ; but for the present it 
would seem unwise to go beyond what experience has shown to 
be fairly within reach. Twenty-four pupils, then, should be 
assumed as the basis for determining the number of desks, 
benches or tables in a room ; and these in their turn will deter- 
mine the size of the room. 

As each room would be occupied in the course of the day by 
three different divisions of twenty-four pupils each, the total capac- 
ity of a room furnished with twenty-four places would be seventy- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 95 

two pupils. Thus, a class of seventy-two members would need for 
its whole work one school-room, one shop and one other room, 
which other room would be either a drawing room or a laboratory. 
Assuming that the school to be provided for would have a course 
three years long, and therefore three classes, — junior, middle and 
senior, — each with seventy-two pupils in three divisions, or two 
hundred and sixteen pupils in all, there would be needed three 
school-rooms, three shops and three other rooms, or nine rooms 
in all. These rooms would be occupied all the time, and would 
constitute the least provision that would meet the conditions of 
the case. But the number of rooms actually found necessary by 
reason of the different kinds of work to be done is somewhat 
greater, — four shops instead of three, and four other rooms (that 
is, two drawing rooms, a chemical and a physical laboratory) 
instead of three ; or, in all, eleven rooms instead of nine. Such 
would be the provision for a school of two hundred and sixteen 
pupils. A smaller school could hardly do with less ; but a school 
of double the size would not need to duplicate the whole pro- 
vision. 

The school-rooms, drawing rooms, chemical and physical labora- 
tories need not be particularly described in this report, since no 
special modifications in such rooms have been found necessary to 
adapt them to the wants of a mechanic arts school. 

But the shops, being a wholly new feature in school accommo- 
dations, need to be described fully. They are : — 

1. The first wood-working room, or carpenter's shop. 

2. The second wood-working room, or pattern-maker's shop. 

3. The first metal-working room, or blacksmith's shop and 
foundry. 

4. The second metal- working room, or machine shop. 
Necessary adjuncts to these are the engine room, the boiler room, 

a store room for lumber near the wood- working rooms, a mould- 
ing shed near the foundry and wash rooms. The best shape and 
size for all four of the shops would be thirty-six feet wide by forty- 
eight long. These dimensions are large enough, but two feet more 
each way would not be space thrown away. The shops should 
all be high, well lighted (on three sides if possible) by windows 
running clear to the top. There should be as much window space 
as possible, consistent with due strength in the walls of the build- 
ing, for abundance of light is a matter of the very highest im- 
portance. In planning a new building, this consideration would 
govern all others except the stability of the structure. 

Another matter of some importance is the placing of the rooms 
relatively to one another. Two of the shops are to be furnished 



96 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

with machinery and two are not. By placing the two latter 
together in one wing a freedom from the troublesome jar of 
machinery is secured for that wing. Here the drawing rooms 
should be placed ; for it has been found that drawing rooms placed 
over moving machinery are seriously troubled by the vibration. 

Again, it is important that the two wood-working rooms should 
be of easy access the one from the other ; and the same advan- 
tage is even more important in regard to the two metal-working 
rooms. This advantage would be secured by placing the two 
metal-working rooms in the first story, and the two wood-working 
rooms in the second story. Then, by placing the blacksmith's 
shop under the carpenter's shop, one side of the building would, 
have no machinery. Between the shops on each floor would be 
placed the wash rooms,* together with the lumber store room above 
and the moulding shed below. But further details with regard to 
the arrangement of a building would seem uncalled for, and may 
well be postponed until the prospect of an actual building to 
be arranged becomes immediate. Meanwhile, attention may be 
directed to the furnishings of the four shops, — the benches, the 
tools and the machinery, — all of which would be the same, in 
whatever building the shops were placed. 

1. The first wood-working room, or carpenter's shop, should 
contain twenty-five carpenter's benches — one being for the 
teacher — and one grindstone. 

Within easy reach from both wood-working rooms should be a 
circular saw and a jig saw. These saws are not for the teachers' 
use alone ; the boys should be taught to use them with care. The 
benches should be placed with head to the light, and the teacher's 
bench should have a space behind it where the whole class can 
gather occasionally to receive instruction. The best dimensions 
for the benches are six feet long, two feet wide, and thirty, thirty- 
two and thirty-four inches high. The different heights are for 
boys of different stature. 

The top of the bench should be a thick hard-wood plank, which 
may be removed occasionally and given a new smooth surface. 
Each bench should be provided with a good carpenter's vise — 
jaws long and on a level with the top of the bench — and with one 
drawer to hold the tools that belong with the bench. Then there 
would be needed seventy-two other tool drawers, to contain the 
tools for which each pupil is held individually responsible. These 

* Since this was written the plans for the Mechanic Arts High School in Boston 
have been drawn, providing ample washing facilities and individual clothes closets 
in the well-lighted basement. This is believed to be a better plan than the one above 
suggested. 






INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 97 

seventy- two drawers would be placed either in the benches, three 
in each bench, or in racks at the side of the room, according as 
the "key-board plan" or the "drawer-rack plan," already de- 
scribed, should be adopted for this shop. Under the key-board 
plan each bench would have four drawers, one for the bench tools, 
which need not be locked, and three for individual tools, which 
should be kept locked with keys that are kept on the class key- 
board. This may be the preferable plan ; but if carrying the rather 
large drawers of tools across the room at the beginning and end of 
every lesson be not considered a serious objection, there may be an 
advantage in the drawer-rack plan ; for under that plan each bench 
would have but one drawer, — that for the bench tools, — and a 
place for holding another drawer while its owner was working at 
the bench. Thus there would be room under the bench for a pair 
of trestles, and the inconvenience of using lower drawers would be 
obviated. But the choice between these two plans might turn on 
circumstances not now foreseen. Either plan would be preferable 
to the plan hitherto usual, by which the bench tools are kept on 
a tool board attached to the bench, extending nearly its whole 
length, and rising above its top about two feet. These tool boards 
are seriously inconvenient in several ways, and the problem has 
been how to get rid of them. Either of the plans above suggested 
is believed to be a satisfactory solution. 

As already implied, there is a classification of the tools to be 
supplied in the carpenter's shop. There are, first, the tools which 
the pupil needs to have constantly within reach, but which are 
not likely to be kept in good condition unless some one is held 
individually responsible for them. These are planes, chisels and 
gouges, — indeed, all edged tools that are in constant or frequent 
use. Such tools are issued to each pupil at the beginning of a 
term, and are kept by him in the drawer provided for his individual 
use, as above described. They may be called individual tools. 

Then, secondly, there are tools which the pupil needs to have 
constantly at hand, but which need no special care to keep them 
in good condition. These are hammers, mallets, chalk-lines, try- 
squares, compasses, screw drivers, etc. They are issued one to 
each bench, and may be called bench tools. They are kept in the 
drawer provided for them . 

Thirdly, there are the tools which are not in constant or frequent 
use, and which may be kept in the teacher's tool closet, thence to 
be issued on check to the several pupils who may need occasionally 
to borrow them. These may be called occasional tools. 

Of the occasional tools, one or two of a kind would generally 
be found a sufficient supply for the whole shop. Of the bench 



98 MANUAL TRAINING- AND 

tools, there would be needed as many of each kind as there were 
benches ; and of the individual tools, as many as there were 
pupils. 

To provide so large a number of individual tools is somewhat 
costly, but seems not uncalled for. There has been some expe- 
rience on this point worth considering. There are schools in which 
no provision of individual tools is made, the edged tools in most 
frequent use being supplied only as bench tools. The economy of 
such a plan is evident, but the great objection to it is the practical 
certainty that the edged tools so used will be constantly in bad 
condition. A boy finding the plane dull will not be disposed to 
take the utmost pains to put it in perfect order, and leave it so, if 
he knows that before he will use it again others will use it and 
leave it dull ; but if he can be secured the full benefit of his 
pains in sharpening his tools, he will be disposed to keep them 
always in the best of order. This is what we might have expected 
beforehand, and experience has realized the expectation. Now, 
it is well known that accurate joinery depends on the sharpness of 
the cutting tools, — good joints cannot be made with dull tools, — 
and it is an observed fact that the quality of the carpenter work is 
distinctly better in those schools which provide each pupil with a 
kit of edged tools for his exclusive use. 

The extra outlay required by such provision of individual 
tools seems fully justified by the better results that are sure to 
follow. Without this provision it seems hardly practicable to 
teach the boys that best accomplishment of a good workman, — 
the art of keeping his tools in perfect order. 

The following lists of tools are given as approximate state- 
ments of what may be needed. The third list, consisting of 
special tools for occasional use, could be extended at moderate 
cost, as needs might arise. 

Lists of tools for the carpenter's shop : — 

(a) Individual tools, one for each pupil : jack plane, jointer 
(22 /; ), smoothing plane, block plane, set of chisels (J", J", £", 

l ,/ i2") J goug6B(i' / ,i"»f' / .l ,/ )- 

(5) Bench tools, one to each bench: cross-cut saw (20"), rip 

saw (20"), back saw, claw hammer, mallet, try-square, bevel, 
compasses, marking gauge, mortise gauge, two-foot rule, small 
steel square, nail set, screw driver, bit brace, oil stone, oil can, 
bench brush and pair of trestles. 

(c) Occasional tools, one, two or more of a kind, as may be 
needed : hatchets, draw shaves, spoke shaves, wood rasps, wood 
files, compass saws, bits of all sorts and sizes, monkey wrench, 
clamps, pair matching planes, beading planes, moulding planes, 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 99 

rabbeting planes, plough, fillister, and as many full sets of 
wood-carving tools as might be needed. 

The tool closet is intended for both wood-working rooms, 
hence the foregoing list is fuller than would be necessary for 
one room alone. In the tool closet should be kept a supply of 
glue, sand-paper, shellac, stains, varnish, nails, brads and screws. 

The cost of the benches and tools for the first wood-working 
room, as above described, should not exceed $1,500. 

2. The second wood-working room, or pattern-maker's shop. 
This should be furnished with benches and tools in much the 
same way as the other shop was furnished, with the important 
addition, however, of twenty-four wood-turning lathes. In some 
shops the lathes are attached to the benches, which, for economy 
of space, are made double ; but a better arrangement appears to 
be to place the lathes by themselves around the edge of the 
room near the windows, and then to place the benches so that 
each one may stand near a lathe, thus allowing the boy using 
both to step readily from one to the other. By this arrange- 
ment the boys are not exposed to each other's turning chips, 
as they are when the lathes are attached to the double benches. 

If the room be well lighted, the benches may be placed far 
enough away from the windows to allow the lathes to be placed 
as proposed. The benches in this room are in all respects like 
those in the carpenter's shop, except that the vises are of the 
variety known as coach-makers' vises, the jaws of which are 
some six or eight inches above the top of the bench. 

The tools to be supplied to this shop are substantially the 
same as those supplied to the carpenter's shop, with the addition 
to the individual tools of a few tools for turning. The turning 
tools should be two turning gouges (£", §"), two turning chisels 
(I", |"), one parting tool, one round-nose tool, and one pair of 
calipers (5"). Any other tools that may be needed may be 
added to the occasional tools already provided in the carpenter's 
shop, the closet containing them being accessible from this shop 
as well as from the other. 

The cost of furnishing the pattern-maker's shop in the manner 
described should not exceed $2,000. 

3. The first metal-working room or blacksmith's shop. This 
shop will necessarily be placed on the ground, for it should have 
no wooden floor ; and the anvils should be mounted on posts run- 
ning down some four feet into the ground. Twenty-four anvils, 
twelve double forges, a teacher's anvil and forge, hoods over the 
forges, smoke pipes and an exhaust fan to draw out the smoke 
are the furnishings required for the principal business of this 



100 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

room. If metals of any kind are used for casting, the melting 
furnace should be placed in this shop and the casting should 
be done here. The moulding trays are stored, when not in use, in 
some adjoining room or shed ; but when in use some of toem may 
be placed temporarily in this shop. Hence, the whole provision 
for moulding and casting may be considered as belonging to the 
first metal-working room ; in other words, this room is a foundry 
as well as a smithy. As already stated, the use of iron for casting 
is not contemplated. 

The tools needed for forging are all of the kind named bench 
tools; that is, all the occupants of one forge use the same kit of 
tools. There is no reason for providing individual tools. 

The tools at each forge are one anvil (84 pounds) , blacksmith's 
hammer (1J pounds), four pairs tongs (£", §", J", §"), a poker, a 
rake, a shovel, a sprinkler, a hardy, a steel square and a leather 
apron. One sledge to two forges. Occasional tools, as cold 
chisels, punches, etc., are not numerous. Moulding trays should 
be 4£ feet long by 1£ feet wide and 1 foot deep, the top being 
about 30 inches from the floor. Over one end of the tray should 
be placed a movable board 1^ feet square. The backs of the trays 
may come up high enough to hang the tools on, provided they 
do not obstruct the light ; but if they do they should be dispensed 
with. 

The tools needed for moulding are a small shovel, a twelve-inch 
brass-wire sieve (£" mesh) , a moulder's trowel (I" X 4"), a quarter- 
inch lifter, a draw spike (6 f/ long, £•" diameter), a larger draw 
spike (8" X f"), a vent wire, two rammers (1J" and 3" diameter), 
a dredging-box, several conical wooden plugs, a straight-edge, a 
small sponge and a small square piece of tin bent to form a gate 
cutter. Most of the moulder's tools can be made by the boys, and 
so may some of the blacksmith's tools. The making of a pair of 
blacksmith's tongs, for example, is an excellent exercise in forg- 
ing, and the product is usually worth keeping for use. The turn- 
ing of wooden tool handles is a good exercise towards the end of 
the first year in school. The second year's work includes the mak- 
ing of a number of tools that will be used in the blacksmith's or 
the machine shop.- 

For the forges, anvils, moulding trays, blacksmith's and moulder's 
tools a safe estimate is $1,200. For the smoke pipes, exhaust 
fan and power blast necessary for ventilating the room and blow- 
ing the fires no close estimate can be made until the conditions of 
the actual room to be ventilated are known. But allowing $1,300 
for this, the total estimate for this room will be $2,500. 

4. The second metal-working room, or machine shop. This 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 10 L 

shop is furnished with a machinist's bench around the outside of 
the room, and with machinery filling the rest of the floor space. 
On the bench are twenty-four machinist's vises, and underneath 
are drawers for the bench tools and places for other drawers, which 
are kept in a drawer rack. These drawers are not large, and so 
the drawer-rack plan will be convenient for the machine shop. 
The bench on one side of the room should be lower than that on 
the other, and the shorter boys should be placed at the lower 
bench. 

The machinery should consist of twelve engine lathes (some 
larger, others smaller), four speed lathes, one planer, one shaper, 
one goose-neck drill, one post drill, two emery grinders and a gas 
forge. The bench tools consist of a machinist's hammer, a pair of 
compasses, a pair of calipers, a measuring scale and a set of files. 
The individual tools are the tools made by the pupils the preceding 
year for use in the machine shop. They are cold chisels, centre 
punch, centre chisel, threading tool, round-nose tool, side tool, 
parting tool, diamond-point tool, inside tool. These were forged 
and tempered last year. This year they are to be ground to the 
proper shapes and kept in good condition under the teacher's 
directions. The occasional tools to be issued on check are not 
numerous, and may be supplied as needs arise. 

The cost of the machinery will vary widely, according to the 
different patterns and sizes and with different makers ; but with 
any machinery at all suited to the purposes in view the expense 
of furnishing the machine shop will be large. The opinion of 
those who have had experience is that small and cheap machines 
are not worth buying. Solid machines of the best construction 
are needed to stand the wear and tear of school shop use. Indeed, 
the same remark applies to all the machinery and all the tools 
throughout the shops. They should all be the best of their kind. 
Inferior tools are not easily kept in good order, and inferior work 
is the result. It is not safe to estimate the expense of tools and 
machinery in the machine shop at less than $6,000. 

Estimates for the wash rooms would depend so much on the 
plan and style of plumbing adopted and on local circumstances 
that they may here be omitted. Caps, aprons, blouses, overalls, 
soap and towels should be kept in the individual drawers in the 
two wood-working rooms, for there the drawers are large enough 
to hold these things ; but in the blacksmith's shop, and possibly in 
the machine shop, pigeon-holes should be provided for the pur- 
pose. In these pigeon-holes or in the individual drawers, as the 
case may be, are to be kept any unfinished pieces of work the 
teachers may prefer to have cared for by the pupils themselves. 



102 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Such are the four shops, with their furnishings and the tools. 
These shops are not fully occupied all the time, for there are four 
shops and only three classes. But it does not appear to be practi- 
cable to carry on the proposed work in fewer shops. To explain 
briefly how the shops would be occupied, let the school year be 
divided into three equal terms, say of thirteen weeks each. A 
class in passing through the school in three years would spend the 
nine terms as follows : the first and second in the carpenter's shop, 
the third and fourth in the pattern maker's shop, the fifth and 
sixth in the blacksmith's shop, and the seventh, eighth and ninth 
in the machine shop. Thus, apparently, the carpenter's shop 
would be vacant in the third term of the year, the pattern shop 
vacant the second term, and the blacksmith's shop the first term. 
But these shops would not be wholly unoccupied in the terms 
mentioned, for the boys in the pattern shop during the first term of 
the year would use the blacksmith's shop to some extent for 
moulding and casting, and boys in the machine shop during the 
second term of the year will need to use the pattern shop to some 
extent in making patterns for their projects, or during the third 
term of the year might need occasionally to use benches in the 
carpenter's shop. Thus the provision of four workshops for three 
classes appears to give no more than a reasonable margin for con- 
venience in working. 

As regards organizing the school, it may be assumed that the 
full school of three classes would not be in operation until the be- 
ginning of the third year, and the full equipment of tools and 
machinery would not be needed until that time ; but, on the other 
hand, it will be necessary to order the machinery six months or a 
year in advance of the time when it will go into use. 

At the start the school would need to have ready one school- 
room, one drawing room, and the second wood-working room, with 
its benches, lathes and tools. This would provide for the shop 
work for one full year and some weeks of the second year, assum- 
ing, as already explained, that the entering class would not exceed 
seventy-two in number. 

At the beginning of the second year the first wood-working 
room should be ready ; and then, or very soon afterwards, the 
blacksmith's shop ; both with their outfit of tools, including also 
trays and tools for moulding, and the melting' furnace. Another 
school-room would also be needed at this time. 

At the beginning of the third year the machine shop should be 
ready ; also another school-room and a second drawing room. 
Thus the full school of two hundred and sixteen boys would be 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 103 

provided with rooms, except in the matter of chemical and physi- 
cal laboratories. If foreign language should take the place of 
these sciences in the course of study, — which has been left an 
open question, — then these laboratories would not be needed. 
It is also possible that one of the drawing rooms might be large 
enough to accommodate the work in physics. Therefore the pro- 
vision of the chemical and physical laboratories may be left an 
open question for the present. 

Respecting the appointment of teachers, it may not be out of 
place to remark on a few points of prime importance. The prin- 
cipal of the school should be a man in thorough sympathy with 
the kind of work the school is to do. If he should have some 
practical knowledge of shop work himself, so much the better. 
He should be a man of full academic training, a man of experience, 
and accustomed to the management of large schools. He should 
have supervision and control over the entire school in all its 
branches of work. His rank and salary should be equal to those 
of other high school principals of the city. 

After the selection of the right man for principal, the next most 
difficult matter will be the finding of entirely suitable persons to 
be assistants in the different branches of shop work. To find a 
good carpenter, a good blacksmith or a good machinist is com- 
paratively an easy matter. But this is not enough. The men 
selected must possess the faculty of imparting their knowledge to 
classes. They must possess the essential qualifications of a good 
teacher, — must know not only the art they would teach, but the 
art of teaching. Sometimes it happens that a practical mechanic 
has had in his youth a thorough academic and even a collegiate 
education. If such a person could be found who also had the 
gift of teaching, his combination of qualifications would be the 
best. The discovery of such persons may appear difficult, but it 
is not a hopeless task ; in proof of which might be named a college 
graduate, who, after taking his degree, passed seven years in a 
machine shop, and is now a highly successful teacher in a mechanic 
arts school. Still, it must be recognized that the happy com- 
bination of all the desirable qualifications is rare, and cannot 
reasonably be insisted on. 

What ought, however, to be insisted on as absolutely essential, 
is that any assistant teacher, in whatever capacity employed, 
should have the habit of using the English language clearly and 
correctly. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the importance 
of taking care lest the introduction of sewing, of cooking, or of 
manual training in any form into the schools become a source 
of injury to them, through the appointment of persons to teach 



101 MANUAL TRAINING. 

these things whose instruction would be conveyed in ill-chosen 
or incorrect language. 

Of course it needs no pointing out that the moral character 
and personal habits of any person appointed to teach anything 
should be wholly unexceptionable. 

Note. — In submitting the foregoing report to the Boston school 
committee, the 'writer made use of the following language touching 
the name of the proposed school : " In closing this report, I wish to 
make one remark about the name to be given to the proposed school. 
I have used [in describing my visits] the name by which all the 
schools visited are designated — the Manual Training School. The name 
has obtained wide, almost universal, currency during the last eight or. 
nine years. I have elsewhere given my reasons for preferring a more 
truly descriptive name, the Mechanic Arts High School ; and this name 
has been used by me in the preparation of the [above] plan. But 
now the feeling comes upon me that, in view of the wide currency 
the other name has already obtained, it might justly be deemed 
pedantic to persist in the use of a name which up to the present time 
has not been affixed to any school of the kind denoted. I wish, 
therefore, to leave the question of name an open one, still believing 
in the validity of the reasons I have adduced in favor of the more 
truly descriptive name, the Mechanic Arts High School, but ready to 
bow to usage, the arbiter in all questions of language, if it should 
be thought best to adopt the other name.'" 

This was written in 1889, since which time the question of name 
has received consideration, and the Mechanic Arts High School has 
been adopted. Perhaps the main reason for this conclusion is the 
fact that the term manual training has come to be used with a very 
broad application, — much too broad to be safely employed to desig- 
nate the rather specific nature of manual instruction in high schools. 
That instruction, in so far at least as boys are concerned, relates to 
mechanic arts, and to nothing else. Hence the term mechanic arts is 
the best specific epithet to use. Moreover, the term high school is 
needed to mark the place or rank of the school in the system of 
schools. It stands above grammar schools, and side by side with the 
Latin hio;h schools and the Eno-lish hig-h schools. 



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108 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix B . 



MANUAL TRAINING IN BROOKLINE.* 
By JOHN D. RUNKLE, Member of the Brookline School Committee. 



This report of a concrete case of the introduction of manual 
training is offered as an example, and perhaps as an aid and guide, 
to those who may wish to modify their public school instruction in 
the same direction. 

At the same time, it is believed that the value of systematic 
training in hand-work, as an important factor in mind training, is 
so fully recognized and admitted that it will not be necessary to 
devote much of this report to this phase of the subject. It has 
become a question of how, rather than why ; and it is obvious 
that the steps here outlined must be modified to meet the condi- 
tions of special cases. 

About the year 1880 it had become apparent that the Ward 
Grammar School must soon have a new building ; and, further, 
that the proposed Muddy River improvement would in a short 
time make it necessary to select a new site for this school. In 
connection with these conditions the school committee and a few 
others were led to the consideration of the importance of a modifi- 
cation of the course of study for this school when it should be 
removed to its new quarters. 

Very naturally, attention was turned towards the subject of 
manual training as a part of a grammar-school course of study. 
At this date the methods to be followed in technical and other 
advanced schools had already taken pretty definite shape ; but it 
was still an unsettled question as to what extent, if at all, these 
methods could be utilized in the grammar and lower-grade schools, 
as an integral and definite factor in their courses of instruction. 



* A Report on the Introduction and Progress of Manual Training in the Public 
Schools, prepared at the request of the Commission on Manual Training and Indus- 
trial Education. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 109 

It became important, therefore, to get, if possible, some expe- 
rience to guide the committee when the time should come to take 
action in the matter, and it may be well to include a brief account 
of the tentative steps which were taken to this end, as shown in 
the successive reports of the school committee. As these reports 
were drawn up by the writer of this paper, they may without im- 
propriety be freely used in this connection. 

During the school year of 1880-81 the school committee re- 
ferred the matter of vacation schools to the advisory committee, — 
a committee of ladies to whom it had been customary to refer 
such questions relating to the schools of the town as needed 
special attention, and were not at the time a necessary part of 
their current work. 

It was finally decided by the advisory board to establish a 
vacation school of carpentry for boys, the age of admission to 
be not less than twelve years. The expense of this first ex- 
periment was borne by private subscription. The only part of 
the report of the advisory board for the year relating to this 
matter is as follows : — 

The trial of an industrial vacation school last summer, after the 
inevitable mistakes of an experiment were conquered, proved a suc- 
cess, which we hope very much will be recognized by the town, and 
that money will be appropriated for the regular maintenance of such 
teaching for the bo} T s. 

The town, in accordance with this advice, voted the sum of 
$250 to continue the school during the summer of 1882, and 
the school committee appointed a special committee to co-oper- 
ate with the advisory board. 

It ought to be added to the above statement of the advisory 
board that the first experiment was beset by three grave diffi- 
culties, — that of finding a suitable teacher, of irregular attend- 
ance and of poor facilities. 

The sub-committee say that, in entering upon the duty of 
aiding in the direction of this school for the summer of 1882, 
the first concern was to find the proper teacher. Learning that 
Mr. George P. Hildreth, who had during the preceding summer 
taken charge of the school for the last month, and had sub- 
stantially secured for it the measure of success it had gained, 
was willing again to take the place of instructor, we had no 
hesitation in appointing him. It is only just to Mr. Hildreth 
to say that whatever of success we are able to report is due to 
his skill as a mechanic and to his faithfulness and aptitude as 
a teacher. 



110 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

But the circumstances were still largely adverse. The whole 
number of pupils registered was 63. Of these, 8 took but one 
lesson; 3, two; 7, three; 7, four; 7, five; 3, six; 3, seven; 
3, eight; 1, nine; 1, thirteen; 2, fifteen ; 1, sixteen; 2, seven- 
teen ; 1, twenty-three ; 2, twenty-five ; 1, twenty-six ; 2, twenty- 
eight ; 1, thirty-four; 2, forty; 1, forty-one; 2, forty-four; 1, 
fifty; and 1, seventy-four lessons. It thus appears that only 
13 of the whole number of pupils took twenty-five lessons and 
above, 42 took less than ten and 32 took five or less. 

Some of the ill effects of this irregular attendance are obvious. 
First, much time was wasted with pupils who took too few lessons 
to profit by the instruction ; second, it prevented in a large degree 
the laying down and following a progressive series of lessons, 
thus impairing the instruction ; and third, a much larger number 
might have been successfully taught if the attendance had been 
regular. 

The school was divided into three sections, each section having 
a two-hour lesson each day except Saturday. The lessons began 
at eight and ten a m. and at two p.m. 

From the attention we were able to give during the progress 
of the school, and at its close, we felt assured of its substantial 
success as a whole, and its marked success in special cases. 

We believed the town would gladly furnish the small sum needed 
to continue this vacation school, and at the proper time would 
make this kind of instruction a part of the required work in such 
schools of the town as needed it. If this instruction could be 
continued during the whole of the grammar-school course it 
would give a large number of boys proficiency in hand-work, 
without in the least impairing the amount and quality of the 
usual acquirements. Not more than two short lessons per week, 
continued for two or three years, in a few well-arranged courses 
of hand-work, would produce results which not long since would 
have been thought impossible. 

We recommended that in future no pupils should be admitted to 
the vacation school whose parents did not apply in person for such 
admission, and promise that, if admitted, the attendance should be 
regular. 

Notwithstanding the above pledge on the part of the parents, 
and in addition the offer of six prizes varying in value from two 
to three dollars each, for the summer school of 1883, the whole 
number of applicants admitted was only 36. Of these, 12 were 
dropped for irregular attendance, and 3 took less than twenty-five 
lessons. The remaining 21 took from twenty-five to ninety-four 
lessons each, and made, upon the whole, satisfactory progress. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. Ill 

We quote a few sentences from the close of the report for this 
year : — 

While a larger numher of pupils profited by the school than in the 
previous year, the number seeking admission did not come up to our 
expectations. 

It is evident that instruction in a vacation school can never take the 
place of the current work during the remainder of the year in any de- 
partment; and the most we have hoped to do is to demonstrate the 
feasibility and value of hand teaching, in order that at the proper time 
the town, might be ready to adopt it as a part of the educational training 
which it would demand of all pupils needing it, either as a means or as 
an end. 

Special mechanic arts schools, or manual training schools, are rapidly 
springing up in many of the larger cities in all parts of the country ; 
and we earnestly hope that Brookline may be among the first, if not the 
first, of towns to recognize the value of this kind of teaching by requir- 
ing it as a part of the pupils' fundamental education. 

The school was opened again on July 8, 1884, and continued ten 
weeks, closing September 13. The work benches were shortened 
to six feet, and arranged for two pupils to each. Such new tools 
as were needed were bought, and everything was done that seemed 
necessary to secure success, with proper attendance on the part of 
the pupils. To this end the committee offered prizes as follows : 
for the best attendance, three dollars ; for the second best, two 
dollars ; and one dollar to each pupil who should attend forty les- 
sons and over. 

The result was that 5 attended fifty-nine lessons ; 2, fifty-eight ; 
and 13, forty and over. During the session 22 other pupils at- 
tended, varying from three to thirty-nine lessons. The age of the 
pupils ranged from ten to fifteen years. 

The first five weeks were almost entirely devoted to teaching the 
pupils how to handle the tools, and during this preliminary course 
the stock was all used up, except samples of mortises and tenons. 
From the 6th to the 19th of August, besides other work, the jaws 
of the vises were made and fitted for the screws, and also ten 
bench-drawers ; from the 19th to the 23d, boxes with mitre joints 
and rabbets for bottom ; from the 23d to the 30th, halved-together 
joints, and mortise and tenon joints ; to September 3, an open 
dovetailed joint and a half -dovetailed joint ; from the 3d to the 
5th, a section of a door with double mortise and tenon and groove 
for panel; from September 6 to 8, a half -dovetailed joint, halved 
together at corner ; also, sample square and mitre saw cuts, blocked 
and unblocked. The last week was spent in reviewing, and mak- 
ing a large box with half-blind dovetailed joints. The work was 



112 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

left so that all parts could be examined, and was all done by the 
pupils, except the laying out for some of the joints. The quality 
and not the quantity of the work was kept in view by teacher and 
pupils, and no attempt was made to do more than teach the sim- 
plest elements and manipulations. 

At the end of the course many of the pupils were in a condition 
to begin to apply what they had learned to more difficult forms, 
and to the making of simple but useful articles. We were also glad 
to be able to say that, in addition to the work which each pupil 
had to show, we saw a marked change in his temper and spirit, as 
well as interest, — so marked as to convince us that this was by- 
no means the least valuable result of the instruction. 

Until the time should come to introduce this instruction in our 
public-school course, we recommended that the vacation school be 
continued. At the close of the course the school committee, with 
others, inspected the work, and were satisfied, upon the whole, 
with the results, which were far in advance of those of previous 
years. 

The school opened again on July 6, 1885, and continued ten 
weeks. Three classes of 14 each were formed, varying in age 
from nine to fourteen years, each class having a daily lesson of 
two hours. During the first four weeks 59 different pupils had 
been in the school, and no new ones were afterwards admitted. 
After this the average daily attendance for a time was 12 in each 
class, and then fell to 9 in the closing weeks. The same system 
was followed, and the moderate attendance secured was the result 
of the prizes offered, as in the previous year ; but we became sat- 
isfied that the method of prizes had not been sufficiently success- 
ful to be continued. As soon as the pupil found that he had lost 
the prize through non-attendance, he lost to a great extent all 
interest in his work. 

We carefully watched this experiment, and felt sure that enough 
had been done to warrant the conclusion that these boys ought to 
have at least two lessons of this kind per week throughout the 
school year, continued as long as tbey remain in school. We 
should not expect much success, or much of permanent value, 
from any other study pursued as this was. We were also satis- 
fied that two shop lessons per week would not interfere with the 
other studies of the school, and that they ought to be given just as 
soon as the proper room could be secured. Manual training was 
a part of the current instruction in between forty and fifty colleges 
and other schools in the United States, and it seemed certain that 
in one form or another this training would gradually work its way 
into our public schools. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 113 

Nothing, in our opinion, would more largely promote the best 
interests of the town than the establishing and supporting of a 
fully equipped and well-conducted manual training school for boys 
of the proper age and preparation ; thus, by a three or four years' 
course of judiciously combined mental and manual studies, giving 
them a sound and broad education, which should both develop 
special aptitudes and point the way to a probable field of use- 
fulness. 

In the near future the town will be called upon to provide new 
and enlarged school buildings, and this subject, in this connection, 
should be fully and carefully considered. 

During this vacation the instruction was given by Mr. S. C. 
Griffin, who conducted the work of this department with great 
success till his resignation in the spring of 1891. 

In the vacation school for the summer of 1886 the methods 
employed were the same as in past years, and by some of the 
pupils a gratifying proficiency was attained. The attendance was 
encouraging, and at the close of the term a public exhibition was 
given, and much interest was shown by those who attended. Some 
of the work was so skilfully done as to surprise those who were 
not before aware of what has been accomplished by this school. 

In November last (1886), at a meeting of the school committee 
and the advisory board, the ladies proposed that the school com- 
mittee should authorize the establishment of a cooking school for 
girls in the upper classes of the grammar schools, the instruction 
to be a course of twelve lessons, under the supervision of the 
advisory board. Attendance on the lessons was to be limited to 
selected pupils, and was to be obligatory. The necessary equip- 
ment was furnished by private subscription, and a course of lessons 
was begun. The plan proposed three classes of six each, and one 
lesson a week for twelve weeks. It met with the approval of the 
board, and was carried out as successfully as could reasonably be 
expected with the means at hand. 

The results thus far accomplished led the advisory board to 
recommend a vacation school for girls, and their suggestions, con- 
tained in a paper presented to the board, were approved, and are 
as follows : — 

The ladies of the advisory board, and a few others, desire to present 
to the attention of the school committee the importance of opening a 
vacation school for girls, during the coming summer, to supply the 
same want which has already been met for the boys. They would sug- 
gest that the same sum appropriated for the boys' vacation school ($250) 
should be allowed for the girls, and that some suitable rooms in one of 
the school buildings should be assigned for the purpose. They offer 



114 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

their services to the committee in arranging and supervising such a 
school, and would hope to organize classes in cooking and sewing. 

They are also anxious to express their strong interest in the introduc- 
tion of industrial training into our Brookline schools, and to present 
some of the reasons for so doing that seem to them most important and 
convincing. 

The first establishment of our public schools may be regarded as an 
act of self-defence on the part of the founders of our republic. It was 
in no sense an act of philanthropy. The clearly avowed object was to 
produce a higher and better citizenship, a more intelligent and self- 
dependent population. Remembering this, it becomes evident that any 
modification of the present public school system must be proved to be 
educational in the broadest sense. We are at the bar of the State and. 
the tax payer, and these have a right to demand that we give, in return 
for their investment, the thing they have bargained for, namely, that 
which produces a population better fitted to support and govern them- 
selves. Now, this is precisely what we claim for industrial training, as 
it is now conducted in the classes to which some of the children from 
the public schools in Boston are sent. Men and women who are made 
capable of sound reasoning, observant, cautious, self-reliant, are likely to 
be good citizens themselves, and to be the parents of good citizens. The 
lessons in making a loaf of bread or a careful mortise are also better 
lessons in chemistry and physics than most of those found in the text 
books, and, as now taught, are object lessons, language lessons, draw- 
ing and writing lessons as well. Children who are not easily reached 
through the printed page are often aroused to intelligent interest in 
abstract ideas which are conveyed to them through manual training. 

For these reasons we hope that the school-house to be built on Boylston 
Street will be so planned and constructed as to allow rooms for indus- 
trial training, and that the town will make a sufficient appropriation for 
that purpose. 

The vacation school was continued in the summer of 1887, and 
the results were in all respects more satisfactory than in any 
previous year ; so much so that the school committee and the 
comparatively large number who visited the exhibition in the 
town hall believed that the time had come to introduce manual 
training into our public schools. The time for this step also 
seemed opportune in view of the fact that several of the schools 
of the town were soon to be transferred to new and more com- 
modious buildings, in which it would be possible to conduct the 
instruction in the revised courses of study. 

In the spring of 1888 the Ward School was transferred to the 
new Win. H. Lincoln building on Boylston Street ; but the new 
course of studies did not go into operation till the following fall. 

The vacation school of 1888 was held in the Wm. H. Lincoln 
building, and the results were very satisfactory. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 115 

During the year 1888-89 a new sub-committee on industrial 
schools had been formed and put in charge of this department 
of the school work, and it now only remains to give some account 
of this new department, as shown in the reports of this committee. 

In spite of some repetition, it may be well, as a summary, to 
include the greater part of the report for 1888-89, showing what 
the results of the vacation school experiment had been, and the 
way they had been introduced into the ¥m. H. Lincoln School. 

In the summer of 1880, in deference to what seemed to be a 
growing public demand, an industrial vacation school of carpentry 
for boys was established. This step was taken as an experiment 
to determine whether boys of the grammar-school age have the 
physical and mental maturity to profit by such a course of instruc- 
tion. It was supposed that a certain amount of hand skill in the 
use of tools could be acquired, but to what extent such pupils 
could be made to grasp the principles involved in mechanic arts 
work, and to comprehend the best methods to be followed in the 
solutions of simple problems, were questions to be answered by 
the results of the experiment. 

The two most serious difficulties encountered at the outset 
were : to secure some degree of regularity of attendance, where 
none was obligatory, and the pupils preferred the freedom of the 
streets and the fields to constraints of the shop ; and to find knowl- 
edge and experience in teaching combined with ability to interest 
and control the pupils under such unfavorable conditions. But 
these obstacles were met, and to a considerable degree overcome. 
Not only the members of the school committee, but others who 
took sufficient interest in the experiment to note the gain from 
year to year, became convinced that the teaching of hand-work 
as a laboratory exercise and as a means of mental development 
had been successful, and would be still more so under the more 
favorable conditions of being adopted by the public school and 
placed among its requirements as a subject of systematic study 
and discipline. 

In the mean time, classes of girls from the grammar schools 
had been taught cooking, leading to the establishment of a vaca- 
tion school for girls, in which sewing and cooking were prominent 
subjects of study. These experiments also had met with sufficient 
success to justify, in the opinion of those most interested, the 
introduction of these subjects into the required course of grammar 
school studies. Finally the opportunity came in the erection of 
the Wm. H. Lincoln grammar school building. Besides accom- 
modations for eight classes of pupils, it also contained basement 
rooms suitable for carpentry and other hand studies for boys, 



116 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

while rooms well adapted for cooking and sewing were found on 
the upper floor. 

In the spring of 1888, when the pupils of the Ward School were 
transferred to the new Lincoln building, the committee began to 
consider the question of the reorganization of the course of study, 
to take effect at the beginning of the next school year. After 
full consideration, it was decided to begin by giving to all pupils 
of twelve years of age and over (which on the average included 
the upper three of the seven classes then composing the school) 
six hours of hand studies per week, and to the remaining classes 
four hours per week, out of the required twenty-five hours per 
week. The time allotted to each of the several hand studies in- 
cluded in the course was as follows : — 

Free-hand drawing, in two one-hour lessons per week, was given 
to all the pupils of the school (279). 

Carpentry, in two two-hour lessons per week for the upper three 
classes, and in two one-hour lessons per week for the remaining 
classes, was given to all the boys of the school (144). 

Sewing, in two one-hour lessons per week, was given to all the 
girls of the school (135). 

Cooking, in one two-hour lesson per week, was given to all the 
girls in the upper three classes (56). 

During the second half of the year, which began February 11, 
the carpentry lessons of the first class were reduced to one hour 
each, and the other was given to mechanical drawing ; and a por- 
tion of the time which the girls of the first class had given to sew- 
ing was devoted to cutting and fitting. 

The shop for carpentry was fitted with twenty-four benches and 
sets of tools, and was large enough to include all the boys in any 
class of the school in a single section. 

The room for cooking was fitted for fifteen in a section, but 
when necessary a few more were included. The room for sewing 
was fitted with twenty-four chairs and single tables, and also with 
larger tables for cutting. 

The aim in the hand studies has not been to produce the largest 
manual results, but to determine the best methods for making this 
work the most effective as an intellectual discipline. It is pro- 
posed to add other hand studies as fast as the best interests of the 
school shall seem to require. 

It may be well briefly to consider the terms industrial education 
and manual training, and inquire in what sense they should be 
used in connection with the hand studies in the Lincoln School. 
Hand studies in any school, or in any course of study, may be 
considered and used simply as an educational means, or largely as 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 117 

an educational end. If considered as an end, then the school be- 
comes a special school with a special mission, having in view the 
preparation of its pupils, through the skill of hand acquired, for 
immediate entrance upon some industrial pursuit in which hand 
training finds a ready application. Such a school has a purely 
industrial end in view, and is a special technical school. On the 
other hand, hand studies may be given very little practical promi- 
nence, and be regarded mainly as the best means for cultivating 
the powers of observation, invention and judgment, and used 
almost entirely as an educational means. It is in this sense that 
these studies are regarded and used in the Lincoln School. 

We do not know what the future has in store for our children, 
nor is it the business of school boards and teachers to inquire. 
The only question is, In what way, and by what means, can we 
best develop the special capacities and aptitudes of each child, 
moral and intellectual, so that it shall most easily find its proper 
sphere in life, and become a self-dependent and a self -governed 
citizen? It is in this spirit, and with these high aims in view, that 
we are striving to build up our public schools. 

The work outlined in the report for 1888-89 for the Lincoln 
School was continued to the end of the year without change of 
plan, subjects or hours, when an exhibition was held, which was 
largely attended by Brookline citizens and friends of the school, 
as well as by many from the adjoining towns, who had been 
attracted by reports of what the school was doing, or by their 
interest in the subject. This exhibition of the work of the school 
was in all respects successful, and seemed to leave no doubts in 
the minds of the visitors of the educational value of this work, or 
of the importance of its extension and full development along the 
lines so successfully followed during the first year. All the courses 
in free-hand and mechanical drawing, in carpentry, in cooking and 
in sewing, were continued and improved during the year 1889-90. 

The boys of the upper three classes had practically finished the 
course in carpentry at the end of the spring term, and at the 
opening of the school in September began a course in wood carv- 
ing, with a corresponding course in mechanical drawing, which 
continued till the room for wood turning and pattern making in 
the annex to the Wm. H. Lincoln building was fitted for use. 

Soon after taking possession of the Lincoln building it became 
apparent that no great development of these hand courses could 
there take place for want of proper space. In this contingency 
the conclusion was quickly reached that a new building, adapted 
to the extension of this work, and connected with the Lincoln 
building, must be provided. This has been done, and the courses 



118 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

in carpentry, in wood carving and in mechanical drawing are al- 
ready well accommodated on the upper floor of the new annex. 
There still remained on this floor a room in which it was proposed 
to place sixteen wood-turning lathes, sixteen benches adapted to 
pattern making, a grindstone, one circular saw, and one scroll 
saw. On the lower floor, as fast as the needs of the school re- 
quired, it was proposed to provide a foundry, a forging shop and a 
machine tool shop. The annex would then contain the facilities 
for instruction in all the fundamental arts in wood and metal con- 
structions. When all the rooms in the annex are fully equipped, 
it will furnish the best of facilities for teaching a much larger 
number of pupils than can be accommodated in the Lincoln School, 
and it is hoped that a manual training school* of an advanced 
grade may be established on the lot adjoining the annex, lately 
purchased by the town, in order that the educational facilities of 
the new annex may be fully utilized. 

The manual instruction outlined in the report for 1889-90 was 
continued during the year 1890-91 with increasing interest and 
success. A most important step was the addition of a wood- 
turning and pattern shop. This shop is furnished with sixteen 
lathes and pattern benches, so arranged that the pupil turns 
from one to the other without leaving his place. The shop also 
contains one circular saw, one scroll saw and one grindstone, 
which is so placed that it can be used readily by pupils in carpen- 
try. The power for this shop is furnished by a Thomson-Houston 
fifteen horse-power electric motor, which has thus far given great 
satisfaction. 

There has been a steady improvement in the amount and quality 
of the work done in all departments. The teachers have grown in 
experience and skill, and the pupils have shown an increasing 
interest and desire to succeed and merit promotion. 

Increased attention has been given in the teaching to the methods 
and details. In the past there has been great difficulty in so 
co-ordinating the drawing and shop work as to make their mutual 
relations sufficiently apparent, particularly to the younger pupils. 
To remedy this defect, and to have the proper drawing always 
ready for use in the shop, all the drawings of the shop courses 
have been carefully made, and blue print copies taken, and these 
blue prints are now used by all the pupils in their work. Even 
the youngest pupil, by a constant comparison of his work with the 
drawing which is always before him, learns to understand and use 



* A manual training school building is now (August, 1893) in course of erection 
on the lot adjoining the annex to the Win. H. Lincoln School. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 119 

it long before he is old enough to be put upon a course of mechan- 
ical drawing. 

It is also becoming more apparent that the simple manipulations, 
or work of the hand, constitute but a small part of the educational 
value of industrial work. If the pupil solves a problem in 
arithmetic by rule, no matter how expert he may be in the numer- 
ical processes, it is plain that the great value of the study as an 
educational factor is lost unless at the same time he is made to see 
the reasons and proofs upon which the rule is based. So in 
mechanical problems, and, indeed, in all processes in which the 
hand is an instrument, the method of solution, and why one method 
is better than another, becomes a most important matter. Nor is 
this all. The pupil should be taught to judge of the quality of his 
own work, as of that of others, by some systematic and well- 
defiued method of inspection. Of the three steps, — the method 
of solution, the execution of the method and the estimate of the 
quality of the work done, — it is not difficult to see that the first 
and third are too important to be overlooked in any well-defined 
system of industrial instruction. 

The last exhibition of work in all departments gave great satis- 
faction to all the friends of the school, as well as to many others 
who were drawn to the exhibition by their interest in this new 
departure of grammar-school work. 



120 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix C 



MANUAL TRAINING IN THE WILLIAM H. LINCOLN SCHOOL, 
BROOKLINE, MASS. 

Remarks by Principal D. S. FARNHAM. 



The manual training element in our school is the outgrowth of 
vacation schools, which were started some eight years ago. The 
first was a school in carpentry, for such pupils as had nothing 
special with which to employ their time during the summer. This 
school was supported entirely by town appropriation, and con- 
tinued through the summer vacation, taking only those boys whose 
parents or guardian would sign an agreement that the boy should 
attend regularly, unless detained by reason of sickness. The 
numbers, I think, ranged from 18 to 25. Prizes were given for 
excellent work, good deportment and regular attendance. These 
boys came largely from my district. 

At the beginning of the school year, in September, the various 
grades of work done by this vacation school were on exhibition 
at the town hall, and the town's people were asked to visit the 
exhibit, and inspect the work. These exhibitions excited much 
interest. I always interested myself, at the opening of the school 
year, in the work of the boys during their vacation, never failing 
to ask each one what he had learned and what he had made at the 
carpentry school. Thus this work went on till we felt that it was 
almost a part of our own work. 

Some six years ago — or about two years before we came to the 
new building — the benevolent ladies in Brookline started a cook- 
ing school for such girls as could attend during the summer 
vacation. The work was successful, and at the opening of my 
school, in September, these good ladies proposed that the girls in 
my seventh and eighth grades stay away from my school one day in 
the week for a two-hours lesson in cooking in this private cooking 
school, carried on by benevolence. This was not received with 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 121 

favor by all connected with public instruction in Brookline. It 
was finally referred to me, and, strange to say, I very much 
favored the project, saying the girls would get more good from 
that school than they possibly could from mine in the same time. 
Thus did the cooking school become virtually a part of my school, 
although I was never inside the room of the cooking school. At 
every lesson given by the cooking teacher a record of attendance 
was kept, as well as of conduct, and reported to me. If a girl were 
absent or tardy at the cooking lesson, she was marked on my 
register as though she had been absent or tardy in my room. 

Thus these two outside schools went on — the carpentry for 
some four years and the cooking about two years — before our new 
building was erected ; so that when we dedicated it, May, 1887, we 
had quite a little manual training element in our hands. Sewing 
had been taught in some of the grades for many years previous to 
this. In September following our dedication of the Wm. H. 
Lincoln School, rooms were fitted up for carpentry, cooking and 
sewing, a permanent teacher being employed for each department. 
Mr. S. C. Griffin, the teacher of the vacation carpentry school 
from 1885, was employed to take charge of the shop work, and 
the other teachers were secured for the cooking and sewing de- 
partments. 

At the close of our first school year, with this manual element 
introduced as a part of our regular school exercises in the build- 
ing, we held an exhibition in our hall, showing specimens of every 
kind of work done in our building, I think, except reading. This 
exhibition attracted very much attention, not only in Brookline 
but in surrounding towns. The cooking and sewing teachers each 
had a good room, but the boys had nothing but the basement for 
a shop. The boys* work was greatly commended, and our worthy 
chairman, Mr. William H. Lincoln, was so much pleased with the 
quality of the boys' work that he then and there offered to give 
$3,000 towards building a shop to be annexed to my building, 
provided the town of Brookline would appropriate $3,000 more. 
A town meeting was at once called, the necessary appropriation 
made, and when I returned in September the building was nearly 
finished, containing six nice rooms. In this building we have a 
mechanical drawing room, which accommodates twenty-four boys ; 
a carpentry shop, with twenty-six benches which are also used for 
wood carving ; a w r ood-turning room, with sixteen lathes and six- 
teen pattern-making benches, — though we have not as yet done 
anything at pattern making, but expect to do something this term. 
In the lower part of the building we have three rooms which are 
intended for forging, foundry work and metal turning. The shop 



122 MANUAL TB AIDING AND 

work, cooking, sewing and free-hand drawing have as their share 
of the school term six hours per week. The above subjects are 
known with us as the manual training department. 

In our sewing room a girl learns to do all kinds of sewing which 
she will have any occasion to use in after life ; and we feel it is 
being taught in a scientific manner by Miss Johnson. For in- 
stance, before the girl sews on a patch or makes a darn, she is 
required to make a drawing, on paper or the black-board, of 
what is to be done, and, after the needle-work is done, to write 
out a description of it. All girls before graduation learn to cut 
and fit a dress. This dress-fitting is done in the ninth year. The 
room seats twenty-four girls. 

In our cooking room the girls learn to compound materials for 
food, but this is only a part of the work. Our teacher in this 
department, Miss Willey, is said to be a most excellent chemist, 
and the girls have the chemical analysis of food plants, eggs, 
beef, milk, etc. This kind of work leads a grammar-school girl 
to take quite a different view of life from that suggested by the 
old method of school work. The cooking teacher can teach from 
twenty to twenty-four girls at a time, — though this is rather more 
than is profitable, I think. We have gas for light cooking, and a 
large cook-stove for other work. Both the sewing and the cook- 
ing rooms are on the third floor, and were fitted up for these 
purposes after the building was finished. They serve a very 
excellent purpose. 

In all shop work there is a carefully planned graded system of 
work. All work to be done in wood is first drawn on paper, in 
the mechanical drawing room, and then blue-printed by the boys. 
The blue print is before the boy in all wood work, and everything 
is worked to a scale, which greatly "sharpens the wits" of the 
boy. If your Commission has any doubt on this point, come and 
observe when a convenient opportunity offers. 

I am a firm believer in educating the eye, hand and mind to- 
gether. I have in past years myself received great profit from 
this kind of education. It is the kind I want my own boy to have. 
I am deeply interested in the poorest boy in our Commonwealth ; 
whether I ever see him or not, I feel for his highest good. When 
I came to Brookline, I think I had the poorest apology for a school 
that could at that time be found in the State of Massachusetts. 
It was known all about this part of the land as being the " tough- 
est school to be found." It has been uplifted by these various 
agencies, till to-day I am proud of it, and I know of no school in 
which I would so soon have my child as in this Wm. EL Lincoln 
School. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 123 

You ask me whether manual training has done all this. I say 
no, heart training has gone hand in hand with it ; we never 
separate them. 

I am very clear in my convictions that the various agencies 
called manual training have opened our pupils' eyes and minds 
as no other kind of work could, and my teachers feel the same 
way in this matter. When a girl comprehends the chemical 
analysis of food, and learns to properly compound materials, I 
feel her mental activity is aroused and strengthened. When a 
boy becomes master of a chisel working into a piece of wood 
which is revolving three hundred times a minute, and cuts that 
piece of wood to a certain scale-size, we feel he has acquired a 
power which will help him everywhere in lif e^ The same is true 
in using carving and all other kinds of tools. The teachers in 
my school observe the great value of this work as an educational 
power, and speak of it to me. I attribute our success largely to 
the vacation schools, which in a measure prepared the way, and 
the fervent interest the teachers have put into the work since it 
came to my building. There is no divided opinion about this 
among my teachers. We also unite in heartfelt support of it, and 
carrying it out to the best of our ability. I question whether all 
towns and cities could do just the kind of work that we are doing 
with a miscellaneous class of teachers without a guiding spirit. 

The extra cost at present to the town for a girl's instruction in 
cooking is $3.60 per year; for the sewing, $3.46 ; for a boy in 
the shop and all that pertains to it, not far from $6.00 a year. 
The upper four classes of girls get two hours a week in the cook- 
ing room at one lesson and two hours a week in the sewing room 
at one lesson. The girls below these do not cook, but have two 
lessons of one hour each in the sewing room ; while the boys in 
these upper classes get two lessons of one hour each in the me- 
chanical drawing room and two lessons of one^iour each either at 
wood carving or wood turning, according to the grade. The two 
higher classes take wood turning. The boys in the lowest grades 
have two lessons of one hour each in the carpentry shop. 

I feel that our pupils do not suffer any great loss in the other 
subjects by taking the six hours for these subjects, for, now that 
we have less time, we have to apply ourselves more closely and 
surely to what is valuable and practical. The rubbish has been 
thrown overboard, and all my teachers rejoice in it. 

March, 1892. 



124 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix D 



A STATEMENT CONCERNING MANUAL TRAINING IN THE 
SCHOOLS OF BROOKLINE. 

By S. T. DUTTON, Superintendent of Schools. 



To the Commission. 

I understand that Professor Runkle has given you full infor- 
mation in regard to the plan and scope of manual training in the 
Lincoln School. He has undoubtedly explained what the purpose 
of the school committee is with respect to extending this work 
gradually to the other grammar schools of the town, and has told 
you that we hope at no distant day to have a manual training 
school of high-school grade, so located that the shops in the 
Lincoln School can be utilized for that purpose. I need not en- 
large upon the points which he has covered. I will make some 
statement concerning the relation of this work to other depart- 
ments of teaching, and indicate what has been accomplished in 
other lines of concrete instruction. 

During the past two years kindergartens have been introduced 
into five primary schools, so that there are now seven kinder- 
gartens in the town. These are the true foundation, not only of 
all manual training, but of intellectual training. The effect upon 
the children of kindergarten instruction as they pass into the 
higher grades is very noticeable and very much appreciated by our 
teachers. Instruction in needle-work is now begun in the third 
year and carried through to the high school. Between the kinder- 
garten and the time when needle-work begins we have exercises in 
clay modelling, building, stick laying, cutting, weaving, etc., which 
seem to supply sufficient manual training. There is a gap in the 
third and fourth years as far as the boys are concerned, and we 
are now considering whether the Swedish sloyd may not be at- 
tempted to fill that gap. The general principle upon which we are 
working is that manual training belongs to every grade, from the 
kindergarten through the high school ; and we are not in sympathy 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 125 

with the idea that the manual training equipment is to be provided 
merely for pupils of high grade. 

In answer to your question whether the girls could not have 
instruction in the use of tools as well as in sewing and cooking, I 
will say that, if it were found that time could properly be spared 
for such exercises, in addition to those in sewing and cooking, I 
should like to give all the girls some experience in the shop. This 
is a question that has not yet been considered in Brookline. It 
has been thought enough thus far to give the girls their own in- 
struction in sewing and cooking, and let the boys have the tool 
work. When we have a new high-school building, as we hope to 
have within a few years, it is likely that in connection with the 
laboratories some shop work will be provided. 

Kindred to manual exercises to which I have alluded is that 
instruction which brings the children into contact with nature and 
the forces of nature. A course of instruction has been begun dur- 
ing the past year that will give the children in the primary and 
grammar schools a general view of the facts of nature. This work 
is pursued entirely by observation and experiment. Pupils make 
drawings and write descriptions of every experiment. This form 
of instruction, in connection with manual training, reveals to 
the teachers the value of concrete ideas as means of stimulat- 
ing thought and expression. The tone of the schools is greatly 
Improved. 

Educational reform to-day consists in bringing the elements 
down to the beginning of the child's school life, so that the germs 
of all subjects are planted in his early school experience and grow 
up with him. The old idea of education was something like an 
inverted cone with the base at the top ; the modern idea is to turn 
over this cone and set it squarely on its foundation, so that, as in 
the kindergarten, the beginning of the child's education may be 
broad, and specialization come later in life. 
March, 1892. 



126 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix E 



MANUAL TRAINING IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT 
BRIDGEWATER. 

By Principal A. G. BOYDEN. 



State Normal School, Bridgewater, Mass., April, 1893. 
To the Commission on Manual Training and Industrial Education. 

In answer to your inquiry concerning the course in manual 
training in this school and the benefits derived from it, I would 
say that we have had an industrial laboratory for wood-working 
in operation for the last twelve years. All our students, both 
men and women, take a course of two hours a week for the term 
of twenty weeks, with the privilege of such additional work in the 
laboratory as they may desire. One of the regular instructors of 
the school is the teacher in this department. 

The aim and quality of this work are shown in the outline of 
the course, which follows : — 

Wood -working. 

Introduction. 

Manual training in its recent and technical sense is strictly educative 
in its aim. It is thoughtful use of the hands in finding the qualities of 
bodies, in manipulating apparatus in the study of the physical forces, 
and in the expression of ideas by drawing and constructing. 

The following principles determine the selection and arrangement of 
this course in wood-working : — 

1. The workshop, tools and work should be such as to impress the 
pupil with the meaning and value of skilled manual labor. 

2. The objects constructed should be of practical value, and be the 
property of the pupil. 

3. The objects should be constructed from working drawings made 
by the pupil from the model or by invention. 

4. The objects should be typical in respect to material, operations 
and purpose, and should be graded according to difficulty in making 
them. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



127 



The Materials of Construction. 
Wood. 

Structure. — Examine the squared end of a tree stem (oak). Observe 
the position, amount, hardness, color and other prominent qualities 
of the outer and inner bark, cambium, sapivood, heartwood and pith 
(medulla). Draw the end section. Observe the annual lines and rings 
and the medullary rays. Count the rings to find the age of tree. Ob- 
serve the cracks in the ends of logs. Break a small ash stick and 
observe the splintery fracture. Of what is wood largely composed ? 

Composition. — Heat strongly in different closed tubes (chemistry) 
portions of the heartwood and sapwood of a living tree. Observe what 
collects on the upper part of the tubes, and the difference in amount. 
What remains in the tubes ? 

Seasoning. — Observe cracks in boards and in ends of logs, the spaces 
between boards in floor or sheathing. What difference is there between 
side spaces and end spaces ? What are the effects of seasoning upon 
the dimensions of lumber ? Observe boards that have curled or twisted 
in drying. What relation do you find between the kind and amount of 
warping and the part of the log from which the board came? How 
straighten a warped board ? Which side of a board should be put " to 
the weather " in construction ? 

Grain. — (The character and direction of the fibres, or the appear- 
ance of a finished surface.) Examine straight-grained and cross-grained 
woods, fine and coarse grained woods (boxwood and oak), even and 
uneven grained woods (pine and ash) . 

Examine sections (1) parallel to the medullary rays (edge or quarter 
grain), (2) tangential to the annual rings (side grain), (3) perpendicu- 
lar to the fibres (end grain). Explain cutting with and against the 
grain. What is veneer ? silver grain ? curly grain ? bird's-eye grain ? 
What causes the lines between the annual rings ? 

Strength. — Illustration : oak bends with difficulty and is stiff, chest- 
nut is flexible and elastic, white-wood is very brittle, hickory is tough. 
Apply these terms to other kinds of wood. 

Defects. — Examine and draw shake, loose and fast knots, decay, wane. 
Describe and account for these defects. How preserve wood from decay? 

Measure and Value. — Find the number of board feet in assigned 
pieces of lumber, and the market prices of the common useful woods. 

Applications. — Examine and describe the common useful woods, ac- 
cording to .the following plan: — 



White pine, 
Spruce, 
Hemlock, . 
White oak, 
Yellow birch, 
Rock maple, 
Bass wood, 
White-wood, 
Hickory, . 



Hardness. 



Weight. 



Grain. 



Strength. Ease of Splitting. 



Other Qualities. 



128 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Fastenings. 

Nails. — Examine cut, wrought and wire nails. Observe the shape, 
parts and how the size is indicated, and the difference between common 
and finish nails. 

Tacks. — Find how the size is indicated. 

Screws. — Examine round-head and flat-head screws, blued and bright. 
Find how the size is indicated. 

Make a collection of nails, tacks and screws. Arrange them in an 
orderly way on strips of board. 

Glue. — Learn how to use it. What is sizing ? 

Pins, Wedges and Dowels. — Observe the shape of each. 

The Tools, and how to use Them. 

Keep bench, closets and tool drawer clean, and the tools in their 
places when not in use. Do not cut the bench or horses. Do not allow 
edge tools to be dulled by striking against metallic objects. Use the 
tools only for the purpose for which they were intended. Protect pol- 
ished surfaces of steel tools from moisture. Oil will prevent rust if 
applied occasionally. If a tool should rust, brighten it with emery cloth 
and oil. 

The Bench. — The bench should be of a convenient height (28" for 
boys, 32" for adults) , should be rigid, and have a hard-wood plank top. 
The top should be perfectly flat and smooth. The bench vise is used 
for holding the work for planing or boring ; the jaw should be kept 
parallel to front of bench. It is adjusted by the screw and a strip of 
board at the bottom. Do not pinch the work so as to indent it. The 
horses are used for holding large pieces of board while being sawed. 
They should be 20" high. One or two hand screws for clamping pieces 
of work together or to the bench will be found useful. 

Measuring and Lining Tools: — 

Rule. — Usually made of boxwood, brass faced. It is graduated into 
inches and fractions of an inch, and is made in parts which fold together. 
It is named two-fold, four-fold, etc., according to the number of joints. 
In marking off lengths, place the rule with its edge on the board. 
Why? Mark the points thus, V, — the vertex of the angle being the 
desired point. It can be used in lining for distances six inches or less ; 
for greater lengths, use a ruler or straight-edge. 

Try-square. — Parts : beam or handle and blade. The beam is often 
made of hard wood, brass faced, and the blade should be of the best 
steel. The blade is graduated. A seven-inch blade is a convenient size. 
In using the try-square to erect perpendiculars, hold the beam firmly 
against the straight edge of board and draw the line along the outside 
edge of the blade. When near the end of a board, do not have the beam 
extending beyond the end, — turn it around. 

Marking Gauge. — Parts : beam, head, spur. This tool is used to draw 
lines parallel to the edges of a board. Set the head at the desired dis- 
tance from the spur. Draw it along the working edge, pressing against 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 129 

it slightly, and tipping the beam forward in the direction in which it is 
moving, so that the spur will not cut too deep. 

Dividers or Compasses. — Parts: Wo legs, arc, set screw, thumb nut. 
Used in scribing and in laying off arcs or circles. It is also useful in 
stepping off distances on a line and in transferring measurements from 
a drawing to the work. Show how to scribe a board to an uneven 
surface, and a chair, with legs of unequal length, to the floor. 

X pencil of medium hardness is indispensable for lining on wood. 

A bevel for drawing oblique angles, and a scriber for making fine 
lines, will be of occasional use. 

Saws : — 

Facts common to all hand saws. Parts : handle, blade, teeth. Size 
told by length of blade in inches and number of teeth to the inch, e. g., 
" 7-teeth " or " 7 pts." means that there are seven teeth in every linear 
inch of blade. The back of saw blade is thinner than the teeth. Why ? 
The teeth are set by bending them alternately outward. Why ? 

Cross-cut saiv, twenty-inch blade and ten teeth to inch, is best for 
ordinary bench work. Examine the teeth (draw side and front views), 
to find adaptation to use in sawing boards across the grain. In using 
this saw, hold it lightly in the right hand, with the forefinger extended 
along the outside. Put the board on the front ends of two horses, the 
part to be sawed off to the right, and the line to be sawed very near the 
edge of horse. Hold the board firmly in place with left hand (and left 
knee if necessary) . Begin the kerf by drawing the saw backwards with 
considerable pressure. Place thumb of left hand against the blade to 
steady it in starting. Proceed with the sawing, using no pressure, with 
long strokes. Follow the line. Test perpendicularity of saw blade to 
board until practice gives a correct habit. To guide the saw, watch 
closely its path by looking vertically down upon it. If the saw leave 
the line twist the blade while it is moving in the kerf. 

Rip saw, twenty-four-inch blade, six teeth. Examine and draw the 
teeth, — side and end views. Compare them with teeth of cross-cut saw. 
Why are the teeth of this shape for sawing along the grain? Hold 
this saw and the board as above, except that the end of line to be sawed 
should be to the left, and the right knee is used. When you need to saw 
both along and across the grain on the same piece of work, always use 
the rip saw first. 

Back saw, twelve-inch blade. This saw is used for light work, — with 
the bench hook for cross-cut sawing, and with the bench vise for rip 
sawing (dovetail saw). 

One or two compass saws should be provided for general use. They 
are used in sawing on curved lines. 

Cutting Tools : — 

Firmer Chisel. — A paring chisel. Parts: handle (ferule or ring), 
blade, — shank or socket, face, bevel, cutting edge. Draw the chisel, 
and place the names of parts on the drawing. The size is told by width 
of blade at cutting edge. Each pupil should have a three-eighth-inch 



130 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

and a five-eighth-inch chisel, and an assorted set should be provided for 
general use. Show how to use the chisel in scoring and paring, cham- 
fering and mortising. 

Jack Plane. — Parts : wedge or chip ; plane iron, — cutting iron, cap 
or break iron, connecting screw ; stock, — toe, heel, sole, throat, mouth, 
bed, handle (lever or thumb screw, horn). Learn how to adjust the 
plane iron. 

To use the jack plane : Put the board in the bench vise, the part to be 
planed parallel to top of bench and about one-half inch above it, for 
planing edges. Put the board on top of bench against the stop for 
planing broad sides. Stand with right side of body at bench behind 
rear end of board to be planed, left foot advanced in a bracing attitude, 
and so that the body may move freely lengthwise of bench ; handle of 
plane in right hand loosely, with forefinger extended to the plane iron ; 
left hand on the toe of the plane. Place sole of plane on the board with 
plane iron just back of the rear end. Press down hard with left hand. 
Push firmly and steadily with right. When near the forward end let go 
with left hand. Always keep the sole parallel to the surface to be 
formed. Test the work with try-square and straight-edge. Show how 
to make a chamfer with the plane. 

A smoothing plane, a jointer and a block plane should be provided for 
occasional use. Planes should have their soles oiled frequently. When 
not in use always keep them lying on their side or else raise the plane 
iron. 

Auger-bit. — Parts : spur, two nibs or cutters, two lips or knives, twist, 
shank, tang. The size is the distance between extremities of nibs. Each 
pupil should have a three-fourth-inch, a half-inch and a quarter-inch bit, 
and a complete set should be provided for general use. The bit is held 
and rotated by the bit stock (or bit brace) , the parts of which are the 
jaw (or socket), shank, handle and button. Put the tang of bit into jaw 
of bit stock and tighten the thumb screw. Put the work in the bench vise 
so that the point to be bored is at a convenient height above top of 
bench. If there is danger of splitting, make a hole with the brad awl 
first. Take button of stock in left hand, handle in right. Put the spur 
of bit upon the proper point. Test perpendicularity with the testing 
block. Stand upright and squarely in front of the work. Rotate to the 
right. Bore until the spur shows through, then turn the work and finish 
from the other side. 

Jack-knife. — Strong, one blade. Learn how to hold it properly. In 
cutting do not have the free hand in front of the blade. This applies 
also to the chisel. 

Miscellaneous Tools and Appliances: — 

Claw Hammer. — Handle ; head, — face, eye, claw. Hold the hammer 
loosely in right hand near the end of the handle Strike square blows. 
Place the nail so that it will not split the wood. Learn how to drive 
nails vertically, horizontally, to toe nails, to blind nails, to withdraw nails. 

Nail Set. — Used for setting nails below the surface. Fill the hole 
with putty. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 131 

Screw Driver. — Handle, ferule, blade. One with about five-inch blade 
and a small one with two-inch blade will do for all ordinary work. 

Oilstone. — The best comes from the novaculite quarries, Arkansas. 
Learn how to sharpen the jack-knife, chisel and plane iron. 

Oil Cart. — Small, brass. Use sperm oil. Wipe the oilstone after 
using it. 

Dust Brush. — Use it at the close of each exercise. 

Sand-paper Block. — Two inches by three, cork glued on one side. In 
using sand-paper the motion should be along the grain, to avoid scratch- 
ing. Use whiting with the sand-paper when you wish to finish in the 
natural grain. The sand-paper should not be made to do the work of the 
plane, chisel or saw. 

The following should be provided lore general use : pincers, pliers, snip 
shears, mitre boxes with back saws, anvil vise, chopping block and hand 
axe, cold chisels, framing chisels and mallets, brad awls, countersink 
bits, half-round files, grindstone, large steel square, turning lathe with 
circular saw and jig-saw attachment, sand-paper, liquid glue, paint and 
paint brushes, shellac and shellac brushes, stain and stain brushes, putty 
and putty knife. 

Construction. 
The order of work in making the objects is as follows : — 

1. Study of the model, — later, the invention of idea of thing to be 
made. 

2. Accurate working drawing. 

3. Study of the materials and tools to be used in reproducing the 
object. 

4. Construction at the bench from the drawing. 

I. To make a Ruler. — Use dressed pine f" thick. 1. Plane one 
edge of board straight and square (working face) . 2. Mark out (rule 
and try-square) a piece 26" long and 2|" wide. 3. Saw the piece out, — 
lengthwise first. 4. Plane the sawed face till the board is of the re- 
quired width (2"). 5. Draw a straight line on each of two adjacent 
long faces, parallel to the edge and T y from it. 6. Chamfer this edge 
with jack plane to the lines. 7. Mark and saw off both ends with back 
saw so that the ruler will be 24" long. 8. Sand-paper the ends and the 
wide faces. 9. Print the number and your name neatly across one end, 
and hand in for inspection. 

II. Block for Soils. — Use dressed hemlock f " thick. 1. As before. 
2. Mark and saw out a piece 12" long, 3|" wide. 3. Plane it to 3f" 
wide. 4. Draw three parallel lines lengthwise on the heart side, — one 
equally distant from the sides, and one on each side of this, one inch 
between. 5. Draw ten parallel cross lines one inch apart, beginning 
one inch from one end. 7. At the intersections bore f" holes perpen- 
dicular to surface. 6. Plane the heart side a little to remove pencil 
marks. 7. Saw off the ends so that the board will be 111" long (back 
saw). 8. Chamfer this side \" with plane on the four edges. 9. Tack 
a piece of card-board over the reverse side. 10. Sand-paper, number 
and name. 



132 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

III. Insect Boards. — Use f " and \" western pine. 1. Mark and saw 
out two pieces 21" long, 2f" tapering to If" wide and §" thick ; and 
one piece 10" long, 1|" wide and \" thick. 2. Plane the pieces to the 
required widths. 3. Place the two large pieces wide ends together, |" 
between them ; narrow ends \" between. 4. Saw the cleats from the 10" 
piece (back saw), and nail them across the wide pieces perpendicular 
to the axis and 17 1" apart. 5. Tack sheet cork over opening between 
cleats (2| oz. tacks). 6. Saw off the ends parallel to cleats to required 
length. 7. Sand-paper the ends, and edges of top and cleats. 8. Finish 
in light-brown paint. Use turpentine to dilute the paint if necessary. 
(Apply two coats of paint, allowing the first to dry, and then sand-paper- 
ing lightly before applying the second coat.) 

IV. Test-tube Holder. — Use |" white-wood. 1. Mark and saw out 
a piece 12" long, l T y wide and \" thick. 2. Plane to right width. 3. 
Bore the hole, allowing for one inch to be sawed off later. 4. Saw 
lengthwise through the hole. 5. Saw off both ends with back saw. 6. 
Saw half-way through at end of middle kerf. 7. Chamfer the four 
corners of handle with firmer chisel. 8. Put on the hinge (narrow, 
wrought, brass butt). 9. Finish in white shellac. (Apply two or three 
coats, allowing each to dry before the next is added and sand-papering 
lightly before each coat is added. Dilute shellac with alcohol, and keep 
the brushes in a covered cup of alcohol.) 

V. Test-tube Stand. — Use \" and f" western pine. 1. Mark and 
saw out the base, 10" long, 3|" wide and \" thick, the uprights 2\" 
long, li" wide and §'' thick, the top 9" long, If" wide and §" thick. 

2. Plane and chamfer the base and top according to the drawing. 

3. Bore the top and base. 4. Nail the base to the uprights, then the 
top (No. 18, 11" steel wire brads). 5. Glue in the pins (meat skewers). 
6. Finish in cherry stain. (Thin the stain with turpentine. One coat 
is enough.) 

VI. Botany Press. — Use \" eastern pine. 1. Saw out the pieces to 
the required sizes at once. 2. Place the boards together, heart sides out, 
and bore the holes for slots. 3. Chamfer the heart side of each board 
with chisel. 4. Cut out the slots with jack-knife (make an opening 
with saw first) . 5. Bore holes in cleats and fasten them to boards, — 
hammer, screw driver, 14 1|" round-head screws. 6. Get wooden 
hand screws, remove end screw, bevel the ends to correspond, attach 
them to the press. 7. Finish in cherry stain and shellac, — one coat of 
stain, dry, sand-paper, two coats shellac. 

VII. Box for Insect Collections. — Use \" and - 1 %'' eastern pine. 1. 
Saw out from \" stock two pieces 18" long and 2 3 y wide, two pieces 
12 ' by 2 1 1 g // . 2. Plane. 3. Cut grooves for cover on the circular saw. 

4. Saw off ends at angle of 45° in mitre box so that the lengths on 
inside will be 16\" and 10i" for sides and ends respectively. 5. Glue 
and nail the ends and sides together properly. 6. Saw out the bottom 
( T y stock), and nail it on. 7. Finish inside with white paint and out- 
side with brown paint. 8. Cut circular pieces of sheet cork and glue 
them into the bottom in straight rows. 9. Use a pane of glass, 10" x 
16", for cover. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 133 

VIII. Mineral Cabinet. — Use |" and f" white-wood. 1. Saw out 
the sides and ends. 2. Plane them to the right widths. 3. Saw and 
plane the pieces for the door. 4. Rebate the frame for the bottom on 
circular saw. 5. Saw grooves in door for glass. 6. Mitre the frame 
and door together. 7. Saw out the bottom and nail it to frame. 8. 
Saw out the shelves and fasten them in place. 9. Put hinges and hook 
on the door. 10. Paint inside white and stain the outside. 

IX. Specific Gravity Apparatus. — Use |" white-wood. 1. Saw out 
the base and upright and plane them according to the drawing. 2. 
Chamfer the heart side of base with chisel. 3. Bore the hole near one 
end of base, and fit the upright to it by means of a dowel joint. 4. 
Graduate the upright. 5. Cut off a piece of No. 12 brass wire 11" 
long, and bend it properly. 6. Fit this spring to top of upright by 
means of brad awl and wedge. 7. Cut out two pieces of sheet lead 1\' 
square, make a small hole in each corner with knife or brad awl, mould 
the pans on the block, tie in the strings, drive a I" flat head brad 
through the middle of one pan and bend it for a hook. 8. Adjust the 
coiled brass spring. 9. Finish in orange shellac. 

X. Parallel Force Apparatus. — Western pine. Follow the same 
order as in the last model. See that the leads are exactly of the same 
weight, and that the beam balances before the leads are attached. 

Additional Apparatus, such as butterfly net, shelves, brackets, physio- 
logical apparatus, models for drawing, may be made as time permits. 

It will be noticed that the pupil starts with a distinct idea of 
something which he needs for his own use, and is stimulated in his 
work by the desire to supply this need. He learns the nature of 
the materials which he uses, and how to use tools, so that he is 
able to go on and make for himself other apparatus as he may 
desire. 

The benefits of this training are noticeable in all the lines of 
school work. Students have better command of themselves in any 
work which requires the use of the hands, and consequently greater 
interest in their work. It induces accuracy and skill. At the 
start the pupil often thinks that an eighth of an inch will make no 
difference in making a joint. He soon finds that accurate thinking 
and careful execution are indispensable to finished work, — that he 
must think before he acts. It gives the pupil the consciousness of 
power to help himself in manual operations. It stimulates obser- 
vation of manual work, of drawing and architecture, and deepens 
the pupil's interest in these things. It begets respect for skilled 
manual labor and sympathy for the laborer. 

Respectfully submitted, 

ALBERT G. BOYDEN, 

Principal. 



134 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix F 



The wood-working now experimentally carried on in the gram- 
mar schools of Boston is represented in the following plates. 

Plates I., II., III. and IV. show a graded course in wood-work 
from the Russian shop work, prepared by Mr. Frank M. Leavitt 
and taught by him in the Eliot School at Jamaica Plain. The 
room with benches and tools is shown in Plate V. 

Plates VI. and VII. show Swedish sloyd for grammar schools, 
as taught by Mr. Gustaf Larsson, Appleton Street School, Boston. 

Plates VIII., IX. and X. show the course taught by Mr. B. F. 
Eddy at the Industrial School in North Benuet Street, Boston. 
The class is shown at work in Plate XL, at drawing in Plate XII., 
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_. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 139 



Appendix G 



A COURSE IN MANUAL TRAINING: THE WOOD-WORKINO 
EXERCISES CARRIED ON IN THE NORTH BENNET STREET 
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, WITH FULL SPECIFICATIONS AND 
DIRECTIONS. 

By B. F. EDDY, Teacher of "Wood-working. 



The system of elementary and progressive wood-work here pre- 
sented is the result of nine years of effort to meet in a rational 
way the demand for manual training. It is elementary, in that it 
begins with the fundamental process of getting out the stock from 
the rough material ; progressive, in pursuing the instruction by 
what seem natural and necessary steps to the completion of the 
successive models. It has gradually assumed its present form as 
the result of actual experience in teaching wood-work to pupils 
from the upper grades of the Boston grammar schools. It is by 
no means offered as a finality, since the experience of the future, 
like that of the past, will doubtless suggest changes, some of 
which will be adopted as improvements, while others will, after 
trial, be rejected as not fulfilling their promise. One of the latest 
changes, contemplated for several years but delayed perhaps too 
long, is the introduction of more curved work, consistent with the 
system with which it is embodied, — a change at last resolved 
upon after a recent careful study of the much-modified sloyd 
models used by a leading exponent of sloyd in this country. 

Careful preliminary drawings on paper form an essential part of 
the system herein set forth. It is not merely theoretically desir- 
able that such drawings should be done. Drawing each model, 
not from dictation alone but from scrutiny of the model itself, 
must actually precede its construction in wood, in order that the 
pupil may form a clear idea, a well-digested plan, prior to any 
attempt at execution. Some one has well said in substance that 
careful drawings are, to those who are familiar with their mean- 



140 MANUAL TEAINING ANT> 

ing, what pictures are to children, showing at a glance what it is 
beyond the power of words to express. 

Careful instruction is given as to the nature of the different 
woods used; the selection of stock ; the construction, correct use 
and care of tools. It appears highly desirable that pupils should 
be taught to sharpen their own tools ; and the writer's experience 
justifies the assertion, hitherto much disputed, that by means of 
a suitable exercise such instruction is both practicable and pro- 
ductive of good results. The constant aim is to reach the highest 
attainable degree of thoroughness, rather than to execute in a given 
time a stated number of models. 

After the pupil in manual training has been led to grasp the 
problem before him, and to an understanding of the manipulation 
necessary to give it effect, he should, after completing any piece 
of work, be trained to a critical estimate of his results ; in order, 
first, to develop his judgment, and second, to render him more 
painstaking in subsequent endeavors. For this purpose a plan 
has been devised and put into operation whereby each pupil tests 
and marks his own completed models, in accordance with a care- 
fully explained scheme. In practice pupils show a tendency to 
severity of criticism toward their own products. The experiment 
is resulting so successfully in attaining the ends sought that it is 
likely to become a permanent feature of this system of instruction. 

If but one two-hour lesson a week can be given, the completion 
of the models here offered will occupy not less than three years. 
Supplementary exercises for those pupils who show especial apti- 
tude for manual work, involving, as they must, principles already 
taught, are suggested as a means of keeping the members of a 
class within range of class instruction. 



Models for First Year (Third Grade*). 

MODEL No. 1. 
Measuring and Lining Exercise. 

Material, | v white-wood. Sawing dimensions, prepared for pupil. 

Planing dimensions, 14" x 2 // x|", prepared for pupil. 
New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Measuring, and drawing horizontal, vertical and 
diagonal lines. 

In Bench Work. — Marking with gauge, try square and bevel. 

* By " third grade " the writer means Class III. in the Boston grammar schools. 
It is the seventh year of school. 




D.F.EDDYS SYSTEM. 
:AR- THIRD GRADE 




Plate VIII. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 141 

New tools : — 

For Drawing. — Thumb tacks, rule, T square, 90° and 45° triangles. 
For Bench Work. — Marking gauge, rule, try square and bevel. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. On the entire length of No. 1 surface, with the rule held on its edge, 

mark off 2" measurements. 

2. With the beam of the try square pointing to the left, and held close 

to No. 2 surface, draw lines through the 2" measurements across 
the wood. 

3. With the head of the marking gauge * held close to No. 2 surface, 

gauge seven lines \" apart the entire length of No. 1 surface. 

4. With the beam of the bevel pointing to the left, and held close to 

No. 2 surface, adjust the blade to an angle of 45° and bisect the 
second, fourth and sixth squares. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 52 ; gauging, 28 ; angles, 20 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 2. 

Sawing Exekcises. 

Materials, 1" pine (rough). Sawing dimensions, 16" x 6" x 1". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Gauging line with pencil and rule ; rip and 
cross-cut sawing to lines with board resting horizontally on 
trestles ; testing the angle of the cut before it is completed ; 
testing the angle of the cut after it is completed ; preventing 
the uncut portion from breaking or splintering ; rip sawing in 
gauge line with piece held upright in the vise. 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Rip or splitting saw, cross-cut saw, trestles and 
vise. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. On one side f of a 1" rough pine board mark out a piece 16'' x 6", 

gauging the width with the pencil and rule. 

2. Saw with the splitting saw just outside of the longer line, holding 

the saw vertically when finishing the cut. 

3. Saw with the cross-cut saw just outside of the end line. To prevent 

breaking or splintering, support the piece when the cut is nearly 
finished. 

4. Select and mark the straighter edge. 

5. Gauge from the marked edge on both sides 2£". 



* The gauge must be set by using the rule, and not by the graduation on the 
gauge itself. 

f The long, wide surfaces are the sides, the long, narrow surfaces are the edges, 
and the short, narrow surfaces are the ends. 



142 MANUAL TRAILING AND 

6. Being careful to keep the vise post parallel with the bench post, 

place the piece upright in the vise and saw in the lines, revers- 
ing the sides of the piece occasionally. Lay the narrower piece 
aside for model No. 4. 

7. Mark the straighter edge of the wider piece. On one side from one 

end and parallel with an edge make four dots, the first \" from 
the end, the second \" from the first, and so on in succession, 
guessing at the distances. 

8. With the beam of the square held close to the marked edge, draw 

lines through the \" measurements. Saw just outside of the 
lines, so as to leave the lines on the larger piece, testing each 
time with the try square. The large piece is set aside for the 
chiselling exercise No. 10. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 40 ; straight edges, 30 ; angles, 30 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 3. 
Sharpening Exercise. 

Materia], y white holly. Planing dimensions, 7" x 2" x ±", prepared for 

pupil. 
New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Sharpening or bevelling with sand-paper block. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Sand-paper block. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Measure \" from one end on one of the wide surfaces, and with the 

try square and pencil draw a line through the \" measurement 
across the wood. 

2. With the lined end resting on the sand-paper block at an angle of 

about 30 J from the horizontal, move the wood forward and 
backward until a bevel is formed, changing the square, blunt 
end to a sharp one. 

3. Remove the square corners of the sharp end slightly. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 30 ; bevel, 35 ; corners, 20 ; cleanliness, 15 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 4. 

Plaxixg Exercise. 

Material, 1" pine. Sawing dimensions, 16" x 2\" x 1" (sawed in No. 2). 

Planing dimensions, 16 /; x 2" x |". 
New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Planing one side flat ; testing flat surface with 
winding sticks; using reference marks; jointing* an edge; 
planing to gauge lines. 

* An edge is jointed when it is straight lengthways and at right angles with 
one side. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 143 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Jointer plane, straight edge and winding sticks. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Being careful to plane with the grain, plane one side flat ; test in 

three ways and mark the side No. 1. 

2. Joint one edge ; test and mark No. 2. 

3. With the marking gauge set at 2" and held close to No. 2 surface, 

gauge a line the entire length on both sides ; plane the unfin- 
ished edge to the lines. 

4. Gauge from No. 1 surface on both edges |", and plane the unfinished 

side to the lines. Set aside for models No. 8 and No. 13. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 48 ; angles, 30 ; finish, 22 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 5. 

Nail Box with Square Joints. 

Materials, |" pine wood, eight 1\" finishing nails, ten No. 16 1" wire 
brads. Sawing dimensions, two pieces, 12J" x 2| /; x f" ; one piece, 
7\" x b\" x \". Planing dimensions, two pieces, 1" x 2" x |" ; two 
pieces, 3£" x 2" x £" ; one piece, 7 T V x 5 T y x {- & " . 
New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Three dimensions, invisible, connecting and dimen- 
sion lines, and arrow heads. 
In Bench Work. — Back sawing square ends ; using bench hook ; 
block planing ; awl boring ; nailing square joints, and nail 
setting. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Back saw, bench hook, block plane, brad awl, 
hammer, nail set, smoothing plane. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a f" board saw two pieces 12 \" x 2|'' ; select and mark one flat 

side of each. 

2. Joint one edge of each, and then gauge and plane both pieces 2" 

wide. 

3. From a \" board saw one piece 1\" x5i". 

4. Plane one side flat; joint one edge; block plane one end square; 

gauge and plane T y thick. 

5. On one side of each of the frame pieces, about \" from one end, 

draw a pencil line squarely across ; carry the line squarely 
across the nearer edge, rest the piece on the bench hook, and 
saw just outside of the lines with the back saw, taking great 
pains to saw squarely. 

6. If necessary, make the ends square with the block plane, holding 

the piece in the vise. From each piece make two pieces, one 
7" long, the other 3|" long. 



144 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

7. Clean one side of each of the pieces with the smoothing plane set 

very fine. 

8. Place the two 7" pieces on the bench with the clean side down. 

Bore two holes with the T y brad awl about T y from the two 
ends and edges half-way through and start the nails. 

9. Place one of the short pieces upright in the vise, and nail one of the 

long pieces to it. Do the same with the other two pieces. 

10. Nail the two halves together on the bench. 

11. Nail the bottom board on so that the corner of the frame will fit the 

square corner of the bottom board, and saw off its extra length 
and width. 

12. Set all the nails below the surface with the nail set. 

13. Finish the outside of the box with smoothing plane. 
Analysis for marking : — : 

Dimensions, 35 ; nailing, 35 ; angles, 15 ; finish, 15 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 6. 

Dowel. 

Material, |" pine. Sawing dimensions, 15i"x§"x§". Planing dimen- 
sions, 15i"xi"x±". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work, — Gauging line with pencil and fingers ; octagonal 
and cylindrical whittling ; filing and sand-papering. 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Knife, flat file and sand-paper. 



Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 151" x ]"xf, with saws and plane. 

2. Gauge T L g" with fingers and pencil the entire length on all sides from 

each corner. 

3. Remove the wood from the corners to the lines, using the knife, 

making the stick eight sided. 

4. Remove the remaining corners with the file. 

5. Smooth with No. \ sand-paper, twisting the stick ; smooth with the 

grain with No. sand-paper. 

6. Set aside for model No. 14. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 40 ; uniformity, 30 ; finish, 30 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 7. 
Picture Frame with Mitred Joints. 

Material, pine wood ; four No. 13 2" wire nails. Sawing dimensions, 
two pieces, 20"x2 7 xf". Planing dimensions, two pieces, 20" 
xli"xf". 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 145 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Back sawing mitred corners; block planing 
mitred corners ; rabbet planing ; gluing and nailing mitred 
joints. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Rabbet plane. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a |" pine board saw two pieces, 20'' x 2" . 

2. Plane one side of each piece flat, and mark it No. 1. Joint one edge 

of each piece and mark it No. 2. 

3. Gauge and plane both pieces li" wide, gauge and plane both pieces 

§" thick. 

4. On No. 1 side of each of the pieces, about {" from one end, with the 

bevel set at 45° and held close to No. 2 surface, draw a pencil 
line ; carry the line square across the nearer edge. 
5o Place the piece in the vise with the marked side up, and start the 
back saw just outside the 45° line ; finish the sawing with the 
piece held on the bench hook. 

6. Test the end with the bevel (making sure that the bevel retains its 

45° angle) and try square, and make perfectly true with the 
block plane. From each piece make two pieces, one 11" long, 
the other 9" long, cut at 45°. 

7. Set the rabbet plane so as to cut \" wide and \" deep, and remove 

the corner formed by the inner edge and back side of each 
piece. 

8. Place the pieces in position on the bench, and number the joints 1, 2, 

3 and 4. Glue and rub together Nos. 1 and 3. After the glue 
has become set, or hardened, strengthen each corner with a 
No. 13 2" wire nail, starting the nail about 1" from the end in 
the longer pieces when the longer way of the frame is to be 
placed horizontally, and in the shorter pieces when the frame 
is to be placed the other way. Glue and nail the remaining 
joints in the same manner, being careful not to jam the sides of 
the frame in the vise. 

9. Set all of the nails and finish the frame with the smoothing plane 

and No. sand-paper, being careful not to sand-paper across 
the grain. 

10. Oil the frame with raw linseed oil ; after the oil has dried, rub with 

a dry cloth. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 48 ; angles, 16 ; joints, 12 ; nailing, 12 ; finish, 12 ; 
total, 100. 

MODEL No. 8. 
Boring Exercise. 

Material, pine, prepared in Nos. 2 and 4, except in length. Sawing 
dimensions, 9\" x 2i" x 1". Planing dimensions, 9" x 2" x |". 



146 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Centring and drawing circles. 

In Bench Work. — Perpendicular boring across the grain entirely 
through ; perpendicular boring across the grain to a given 
depth. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Auger bit f", wing dividers. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Block plane one end of model No. 4 square. 

2. Measure 9" from the square end, and saw the piece off just outside 

of the line ; plane to the line. Set the extra piece aside for 
model No. 13. 

3. Lay off centres for holes with gauge and dividers, and prick them. 

Accuracy in laying out the centres is of utmost importance. 

4. Place the piece in the vise horizontally, with the upper side even 

with the top of the vise, and start the spur of the bit at the first 
centre. Bore until the bit will stand upright alone. 

5. Move away from the bit a few feet, and see if it stands vertically. 

Bore until the spur protrudes on the under side. Bore the three 
remaining holes in the same manner. 

6. Complete the boring entirely through by turning the piece in the vise. 

7. Place the piece in the vise horizontally, with the upper edge even 

with the top of the vise ; start the spur of the bit at the first 
centre and bore, keeping count of the revolutions, and testing 
the depth of the hole frequently with the rule until a depth of 
li" is reached, being careful to use no downward pressure on 
the bit. Bore the three remaining holes in the same manner, 
using the same number of revolutions. 

8. Clean the model with smoothing plane. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 30 ; boring, 32 ; angles, 20 ; finish, 18 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 9. 

Coat-hanger. 

Material, §" pine. Sawing dimensions, 16"x3"xf". Planing dimen- 
sions, 15£" x 2f"* x |". 
New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Plotting free-hand curves, and showing complete 

section. 
In Bench Work. — Using turning saw, spoke shave, cabinet scraper ; 
making concaved edge square with side ; making convexed edge 
curved. 
New tools : — 

Bench Work. — Turning saw, spoke shave, cabinet scraper, \" auger 
bit. 

* One edge jointed. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 147 



Order of Exercises. 

1. From a £" pine board saw a piece 16" x 3". 

2. Make one side flat, joint one edge, block plane the ends and make 

the piece §" thick. 

3. Plot the curve on the first side (see drawing) ; bore the hole, being 

careful not to bore entirely through without turning the piece 
in the vise. 

4. Place the piece in the vise and saw with the turning saw about \" 

outside the lines, standing directly in front of the piece ; point 
the saw straight ahead, avoid twisting the saw, and saw with 
the grain, so as to leave the smooth side of the kerf on the 
model. 

5. Spoke shave and file to the lines, keeping the edges square. 

6. Gauge with the finger nail and pencil \" from the top edge on both 

sides. 

7. Form the curve on the top edge with the spoke shave, file and 

cabinet scraper. 

8. Clean both sides with the smoothing plane, and finish with No. 

sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 40 ; curves, 30 ; boring, 12 ; finish, 18 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 10. 
Chiselling Exercise. 

Material, pine. Sawing dimensions, 14"x3i"xl". (From No. 2.) 

Planing dimensions, 13" x 3" x f ". 
New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Lining with knife point ; vertical chiselling across 
the grain ; chiselling out grooves with open ends of uniform 
width and depth, at 90° and 45° angles. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — 1|" socket firmer chisel ; f " socket firmer 
chisel ; hand screw, mallet. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 13" x 3" x |", with ends planed square. 

2. Draw the construction on the first side ; place the rule on its edge, 

and measure very carefully, using the knife point in marking the 
lines. 

3. Saw with the back saw just inside of the \" spaces, not quite f" deep. 

4. Secure the piece to the bench with a hand screw, keeping the jaws 

of the hand screw parallel. Remove the wood between the saw 
kerfs with the 1\" chisel, held on a slant with the bevel side 
down. 

5. With the wide chisel held vertically and the bevel side held toward 

the wood to be removed, cut the walls f " deep. 



148 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

6. Place the piece in the vise with one edge up, the bottom toward you. 

Pare down to the §" line with the §" chisel half way through. 
Reverse the piece in the vise, and finish in the same manner, 
being careful to make the bottom of the grooves flat. 

7. Clean with the jointer plane set very fine. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 45 ; angles, 20 ; uniformity, 18 ; finish, 17 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 11. 
Blind Dowel Joint at Corner. 

Material, 1" pine and \" black walnut. Sawing dimensions, one piece, 
8^" x3|"x 1" ; one piece, 3" x |" x i". Planing dimensions, two 
pieces, 4" x 3" x f " ; one piece, 3" x §" x §". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Making rabbet. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare two pieces, 4" x 3" x |'\ 

2. From the end on the marked side of one of the pieces measure the 

thickness of the other, and square a line across the side and 
from the ends of this line §" on each edge. 

3. From the marked side gauge § " from the squared line on one edge 

around the nearer end to the squared line on the other. 

4. Rough out the rabbet with the back saw. 

5. In finishing with the chisel place the piece in the vise with the edge 

up, and cut in the edge lines about \" deep ; place the piece flat 
on the bench with the marked side up, and finish cutting the 
end. With the piece held upright in the vise, finish the length 
of the rabbet. 

6. From the marked side gauge f " across the end of the rabbet. From 

the end of the other piece gauge §" across the marked side. 

7. From the marked edge of each piece on the gauged lines lay off 

with the gauge §", 1£", 2§". 

8. At the six intersections of the gauged lines as centres bore §" holes 

T y deep. 

9. Make the §" dowel same as in model No. 6, and cut from it three 

pieces |" long. 

10. Glue the dowels in the holes in the end of the rabbet. 

11. Clean the model with the smoothing plane. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 40 ; boring, 18 ; joint, 18 ; finish, 24 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 12. 

Sand-paper Block. 

Material, | /; pine wood, \ sheet of sand-paper. Sawing dimensions, 
block, 5"x2i // xf' / ; key, 5"x^"xf. Planing dimensions, block, 
4\" x 2" x f " ; key, 4*" x f" x f". 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 149 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Horizontal chiselling lengthways of the grain ; 
fitting key to groove ; chiselling square ends of key. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — §" socket primer chisel. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 41" x 2" x f ", with ends block planed. 

2. Gauge the construction lines. 

3. Place the piece in the vise with the gauged side up, and saw with 

the back saw just inside of the groove lines not quite f" deep. 

4. Score out the groove between the kerfs not quite to the bottom line. 

Finish the groove with the 1\" and §" chisels, cutting the side 
walls with the wider chisel held vertically, drawing the chisel 
sideways as well as pressing down. 

5. Prepare a piece, 5" x -|" x §", with sawed ends. 

6. At about T y from the end of the piece square a line on the sides and 

edges with a knife. With the bevel side of the wide chisel 
turned toward the end to be removed, the cutting edge of the 
chisel placed in the squared line, and the chisel held upright, 
cut down about \" on the sides and edges. Repeat the process 
until the chisel cuts off all the wood to the centre of the end. 
Measure from the square end 4i", square a line around, saw 
just outside of the line, and chisel as before. 

7. Fold I sheet of sand-paper around the block, and secure it in place 

with the key. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 36 ; groove, 30 ; angles, 24 ; finish, 10 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 13. 
Thumb Tack Holder and Pencil Pointer. 

Material, pine wood, prepared except in length in Nos. 2 and 4, No. 
sand-paper. Sawing dimensions, 6|" x 2" x f ". Planing dimen- 
sions, 6§"x2"xf". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Chiselling curved end ; chamfering ; quarter 
fluting ; and gluing sand-paper. 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work, — Gouge. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Block plane one end of piece left from model No. 8. 

2. Measure 5" from the square end, and square a line around the piece ; 

find the centre of the lines on both sides. 

3. Draw the curved construction lines with the dividers and the straight 

lines with the gauge. 

4. Bore the hole. 



150 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

5. With the piece held in the vise, chamfer the two ends and then the 

edges on one side. 

6. Remove the corners from the other side with the gouge. 

7. Cut and glue on the piece of No. sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 45 ; curves, 15 ; chamfering, 12 ; fluting, 12 ; finish, 16 ; 
total, 100. 

MODEL No. 14. 

Flower Trellis. 

Material, f" pine wood, dowel from No. 6 ; fifteen No. 19 §" wire brads. 
Sawing dimensions, 20!" x If" x !"• Planing dimensions, 20" x 1\" 

X 4 ' 

New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Arrows showing dimensions which extend outside 

of material used, broken drawing. 
In Bench Work. — Spreading and bending slats ; oblique chiselling 

and planing. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 20" x 1\" x f ". 

2. Lay off centres for holes on both edges with the try square and gauge. 

3. Place the piece in the vise with one edge up, and bore the holes about 

half way through ; reverse the edges and bore way through. 

4. Make the construction lines for the pointed end, and place the piece 

in the vise so that the end will project a little beyond the end of 
the bench ; cut nearly to the oblique lines with the wide chisel, 
and finish to the lines with the smoothing plane. 

5. Measure 15" from the wide end, and square a pencil line around the 

wood. 

6. Gauge the four 15" lines from the marked edge on both sides, begin- 

ning at the squared line. 

7. Place the piece in the vise in a vertical position, having the end 

about 5" above the top of the bench, and saw down about 4" in 
each of the four gauge lines ; repeat the process until the 
squared line is reached. 

8. From model No. 6 cut three pieces of the lengths shown in the draw- 

ing, and make a light pencil mark \" on each side of the centre 
of the length of each piece. 

9. Place the three dowels through the holes in the slats so as to have the 

pencil marks on the dowels even with the sides of the centre slat ; 
secure in place by nailing through the centre slat into the dowels. 

10. Fasten a hand screw to the piece just below where the slats end, to 

prevent splitting ; spread the slats according to distances shown 
in the drawing each side of the centre and fasten in place with 
nails. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 30 ; sawing, 32 ; boring, 15 ; nailing, 15 ; finish, 8 ; 
total, 100.. 




Plate IX. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 151 



Models for Second Year (Second Grade*). 

MODEL No. 15. 

Tool-strop Box. 

Material, f " and 2\" pine wood ; leather 8" x 2" x T y ; four f " brads. 

Sawing dimensions, box, one piece, 18|" x $¥' x f" ; block, one 

piece, 8^" x 2\" x If". Planing dimensions, two pieces, 9" x 3" x if" ; 

one piece, 8" x 2" x 1|". 
New exercises : — 

In. Bench Work. — Chiselling out grooves with closed ends ; filing 
points of brands. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Safe edge, smooth file. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare two pieces for box, 9" x 3" x if". 

2. Prepare one piece for block, 8" x 2" x 1|". 

3. On the first side of the two box pieces gauge i" from the marked 

edge and one end of each. 

4. Place the block on one of the pieces so as to have the edge and end 

fit the gauge lines, and with the point of the knife mark along the 
opposite edge and end ; repeat the process on the other box piece. 

5. Secure one of the box pieces to the top of the bench by means of a 

hand screw ; hold the wide chisel vertically just inside of the 
end lines with the bevel toward the wood to be removed, and 
strike the chisel lightly with the mallet ; move the chisel about 
\" farther away from the end line with its bevel side down, and 
remove the wood between it and the vertical cut. Repeat the 
process at the ends of both pieces until a depth of about \" is 
reached. 

6. Cut vertically directly in the end lines. 

7. Score out the wood between the ends not quite to the side lines to 

the depth of about \" . 

8. Place one of the pieces in the vise horizontally and pare down in the 

side lines. Smooth out to a depth of T 9 g". Do the same to the 
other piece to the depth of §". 

9. Chamfer the cover. 

10. On the bottom, about \" from each corner, drive a §" brad, leaving 

the heads projecting about T y. 

11. File the brad heads to a point with the safe edge file. 

12. Glue the leather to the block, placing the glue on the wood, and 

when dry trim it even with the block. 

13. Put the box together and sand-paper the outside. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 45 ; angles, 20 ; uniformity, 18 ; chamfering, 8 ; finish,' 
9 ; total, 100. 

* Class II. in the Boston grammar schools, or eighth year of school. 



152 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



MODEL No. 16. 

Pressing or Cutting Board. 

Material, f" pine. Sawing dimensions, 19i // x4i // x f", two pieces. 

Planing dimensions, 19±" x 7±" xi|", one piece. 
New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Planing wide surface ; jointing and gluing edges. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Joint one edge of each of the sawed pieces. 

2. Glue and rub the edges together. 

3. Plane one side flat; gauge the thickness and plane to lines; joint 

one edge ; gauge and plane width. 

4. Bore the centre hole and those which form part of the construction, 

and saw with turning saw just outside of the curves. 

5. Finish with spoke shave, file and sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 30.; angles, 20 ; joint, 20 ; finish, 30 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 17. 
Joints. 

Corner joints, halved-together joint, open mortise and tenon joint, 
half-dovetail and dovetail joint. Material, 1|" pine. Sawing 
dimensions, one piece, 12i / 'x4" x 1|". Planing dimensions, four 
pieces, 6'' x If" x If". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Laying out and cutting the four joints. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a 1\" plank saw a piece 12|"x4". 

2. Plane one side flat and joint one edge. 

3. Gauge the If" thickness and plane to the line. 

4. Block plane the ends square. 

5. Measure 6" from both ends, and with the try square and knife draw 

lines entirely around the piece. 

6. Saw just outside of the lines, and Mock plane to them. 

7. From the marked edge gauge If" and then 1\%" . 

8. Saw between the lines and plane to them, marking the new surface 

on the unfinished piece No. 2. 

9. Gauge the two unfinished pieces If", and plane to the lines. 

10. In laying out the joints do all the gauging from the upper or first 

side of each piece. 

11. With two of the pieces lay out the halved-together joint and remove 

the wood as in No. 11. 

12. With the right-hand piece and a third piece lay out the mortise and 

tenon joint. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 153 

13. In removing wood from mortise bore as in No. 8 near the blind end 

with a bit of proper size, and rough out with back saw, finishing 
with chisel. 

14. On right-hand end of third piece and a fourth piece lay out the half- 

dovetail joint, drawing the oblique lines with the knife point. 

15. Remove the wood as before, using care on the oblique lines to cut 

from the end of the wood toward the centre. 

16. On the right-hand end of the fourth piece and the left-hand end of 

the first piece, lay out the dovetail joint and remove the wood 
as before. 

17. Glue the joints together and clean the model with the smoothing 

plane and fine sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 36 ; joints, 40 ; angles, 16 ; finish, 8 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 18. 

Match Safe. 

Material, 1" and \" pine wood; No. \ sand-paper; three 1" No. 6 
screws ; two | /; No. 6 screws. Sawing dimensions, one piece, 4^" 
x 4i" x 1" ; one piece, 7|" x 7f' 7 x \" . Planing dimensions, one 
piece, 4" x 4" x I" ; one piece, 7\" x 7\" x £J § . 

New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Three views, geometrical problem, — to construct a 

regular octagon within a square. 
In Bench Work. — Making quarter-round moulding, fluting, coun- 
tersinking and screwing 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — German bit, countersink and screw driver. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 1\" x 7\" x T y. 

2. Draw the construction for the octagon, remove the wood from the 

corners with the back saw, sawing just outside of the lines. 
Block plane to the lines 

3. Bore the hole ; gauge the lines on the first side, edges and ends, and 

remove the corners with a gouge ; finish the fluted parts with 
fine sand-paper wound about a dowel. 

4. Bore and countersink the holes for the screws, finishing with sand- 

paper. 

5. Prepare a piece, 4 ;/ x 4" x §". 

6. Draw the construction lines for the quarter-round moulding and cut 

the end first, using chisel, file and sand-paper. Cut the edges 
in the same manner. 

7. Flute the pockets with the gouge, using a narrow chisel at the ends. 

8. Screw the two parts together. Cut and glue the sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 32 ; quarter-round moulding, 18 ; pockets, 10 ; quarter 
fluting, 16 ; screwing, 10 ; finish, 14 ; total, 100. 



154: MANUAL TRAINING AND 



MODEL No. 19. 
Bread Trencher. 

Material, f " pine. Sawing dimensions, 121" x9i"x I". Planing dimen- 
sions, 12i"x9i"x|". 

New exercises : — ■ 

In Drawing. — Geometrical problem, — to draw a curve approxi- 
mating an ellipse, having given the major axis. 
In Bench Work, — Cutting a fillet and quarter-round moulding. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Saw from a flat |" board a piece 12\" x 9^ ;/ , and on it construct the 

curves. 

2. Saw with the turning saw just outside of the line. 

3. Spoke shave to the line, keeping the edge square. 

4. Secure the piece to the bench with a hand screw and chisel down 

just outside of the inner curve not quite -|" deep. 

5. Remove the rabbet with the chisel, having the direction of the stroke 

toward the outside, to avoid injuring the shoulder. 

6. Being careful that the chisel is held vertically, chisel to the curve 

line. 

7. Model the curved moulding with the chisel, and finish with file and 

sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 40 ; curves, 32 ; shoulder, 16 ; finish, 12 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 20. 
Trestle. 

Material, 2\" and f" pine wood ; sixteen No. 13 2" wire nails. Sawing 
dimensions, one piece, 181'' x 4|" x 2\" ; four pieces, 20^" x 31" x f " ; 
one piece, 6\" x9|" x |". Planing dimensions, one piece, 18" x4" 
x 2" ; four pieces, 20£" x 3" x |" ; one piece, 6" x 9£" x |". 

New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — To scale (\ size). 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 18" x 4" x 2". 

2. With the try square and knife draw lines around the piece 3" from 

each end. 

3. On the first side gauge from both edges from these lines to the 

nearer end 1\ ' . 

4. In like manner gauge on the opposite side f ". 

5. Connect the 1\" and f" lines at each end with the bevel and knife. 

6. Remove the corners with the back saw, sawing just outside the 

lines. 

7. Finish to the lines with the chisel, as in model No. 17. 

8. Prepare four pieces, 2Q\" x 3" x f ". 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 155 

9. Bevel both ends of each piece with the back saw ; clean both sides 

with the smoothing plane. 

10. Glue and nail the legs to the top. 

11. Block plane the ends of the piece 6\" x9{" xf", making it 6" long. 

12. Place the trestle upside down on the bench, and draw the converg- 

ing lines on the end pieces by placing the side of the piece 
against the outer edge of the legs. 

13. Saw just outside of the lines, and plane to the lines with the smooth- 

ing plane, testing the edges with the try square. 

14. Hold the pieces between the legs by means of a hand screw, and 

secure in place with glue and nails. 

15. Finish the ends and top with smoothing plane. 

16. Round the corners of the top piece with a gouge. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 42 ; joints, 20 ; nails, 28 ; finish, 10 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 21. 
Bench Hook and Planing Board. 

Material, f " pine wood, 1" cherry wood ; five \\" No. 10 screws ; one 
1" No. 10 screw. Sawing dimensions, one piece pine, 12£"x8^"' 
xf"; one piece, 12^ // x6| // xf // ; one piece cherry, 15"x2^"xl". 
Planing dimensions, one piece pine, 12'' x 8" x £" ; one piece, 12" x 6'' 
x \" ; one piece cherry, 8'' x 2" x f" ; one piece, 6" x 2" x |". 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — ^" German bit. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a |" pine board prepare one piece 12" x 8" x *-" and one piece 

12"x6"xJ". 

2. From a 1" cherry board prepare one piece 8" x2" xf'' and one piece 

6"x2"x|". 

3. Glue the two- pine pieces together. 

4. Being careful to have the edges of the cherry pieces at right angles 

to the edges of the pine pieces, secure them in place by means 
of glue, hand screws and screws. 

5. Bore the hole, and chamfer the corner of the shorter cherry piece. 

6. Finish with fine sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 48 ; angles, 20 ; screws, 12 ; finish, 20 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 22. 
Marble Rake. 

Material, !'' pine. Sawing dimensions, 141" x 4" x|". Planing dimen- 
sions, 14"x3fx§".* 

* One edge jointed. 



156 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Free-hand ellipse. 

In Bench Work. — Modelling a handle any cross section of which 
will be an ellipse. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Saw out a piece from a \" board 14^" x 4". 

2. Joint one edge of the piece and block plane one end square. 

3. Draw the construction lines. 

4. Place the piece horizontally in the vise and bore the holes. 

5. With the try square and knife draw lines from the sides of the holes 

on one side around the jointed edge to the sides of the holes 
on the opposite side. 

6. Being careful to avoid letting the saw scar the sides of the holes, 

saw with the back saw just inside the knife lines. 

7. Chisel to the lines, as in model No. 17. 

8. Saw just outside the curved lines with the turning saw. 

9. Finish to the lines with the spoke shave, gouge and file. 

10. Draw a free-hand ellipse on the end of the handle. 

11. Model the handle with the spoke shave, file, cabinet scraper and 

sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 30 ; curves, 20 ; boring, 20 ; chiselling, 16 ; finish, 14 ; 
total, 100. 



Models for Third Year (First Grade*). 

MODEL No. 23. 

Joints. 

Halved-together, half-dovetail, mortise and tenon, and blind mortise and 

tenon joints. 
Material, 1|" pine, \" black walnut. Sawing dimensions, pine, 151" x 

4" x 1|" ; black walnut, 4" x \" x i". Planing dimensions, two pieces 

pine, 9i" x If" x If" ; one piece, b\" x If'' x If" ; one piece, 4|" x If" 

x 1|" ; one piece black walnut, 4" x f " x |". 
New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Laying out and cutting the four joints ; draw- 
boring and dowelling. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare the four pieces as in No. 17. 

2. Place the pieces on the bench with the first side up, and letter them 

«, 6, c and d, as on the drawing. 

3. Lay out the four joints with the try square, knife and gauge, and 

remove the wood as in model No. 17. 

* Class I. in the Boston grammar schools, or ninth year of school. 




Plate X. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 157 

4. From the top side of the c piece bore a f" hole through the centre 

of each mortise. 

5. Insert the tenons, place the bit in the holes already bored, and press 

the point against the tenons ; withdraw the tenons and bore 
holes through them, starting the bit a little nearer the shoulder 
of the tenons than the marks are. 

6. Make the dowels, cutting them a little longer than the holes, and 

drive them in place. 

7. Cut oif the projecting portion of the dowels, and clean the model 

with fine sand-paper, 
Analysis-for marking : — 

Dimensions, 36 ; joints, 24 ; dowels, 10 ; angles, 16 ; finish, 14 ; 
total, 100. 

MODEL No. 24. 
Mallet. 

Material, 3" maple and 1\" cherry. Sawing dimensions, one piece maple, 
h\" x 3" x 3" ; one piece cherry, 11 \" x 1\" x l-i". Planing dimen- 
sions, one piece maple, 5" x2£"x2f // ; one piece cherry, 11 \" x 1" 
xl". 

New exercises : — 

In Drawing. — Free-hand supple curve. 

In Bench Work. — Modelling octagonal handle, wedging. 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Wing calipers. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece of maple, 5" x 2f " x 2f". 

2. Bore a f " hole entirely through by boring half-way from opposite 

sides. Elongate the hole slightly in the direction of the grain 
at'one end. 

3. Draw the construction lines for the octagon at each end. 

4. Gauge \" around on each end. 

5. Connect the gauge lines on two opposite sides by free-hand curves. 

6. Chisel and file to lines. 

7. Connect the gauge lines on the two curved sides, and finish to lines 

as before. 

8. Connect the corners of the octagon at each end on all four sides. 

9. Remove the corners to the lines. 

10. Prepare a piece of cherry, 11£" xTxl", 

11. Draw the curved construction lines on opposite sides, free hand, and 

proceed to make it octagonal, using the same steps and tools as 
in making the maple head. 

12. Make the dowel at the end, and fit it to the head. 

13. With the knife split the dowel slightly in the middle at its end. 

14. Make the small cherry wedge, and after placing the head and han- 

dle together glue and drive the wedge into the split at the end 
of the handle. 



158 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

15 Saw off the extra length of the dowel, and wedge and finish with 

chisel. 
16. Finish all with fine sand-paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 42 ; curves, 32 ; wedging, 8 ; finish, 18 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 25. 

Mitre Box. 

Material, If" and 1" pine wood; eight 1\" No. 10 screws. Sawing 
dimensions, one piece, 16$" x3f"xl|" ; two pieces, 16i"x4f' x 1". 
Planing dimensions, one piece, 16" x 3}" x If" ; two pieces, 16" x4i'' 

x 8 . 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Back sawing between lines. 
New tools : — ■ 

For Bench Work. — fa" German bit. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare one piece, 16" x 3\" x If". 

2. Prepare two pieces, 16" x 4 J" x f ". 

3. On the marked side of the two pieces just prepared bore and counter- 

sink the holes for the screws, using a g 5 ," bit. 

4. Secure the sides to the bottom by means of two hand screws, and 

fasten in place with eight screws. 

5. On the top edges and outsides of the side pieces lay out and draw 

very carefully the lines between which the saw is to run. 

6. Secure the box to the bench with a hand screw, and saw very slowly 

and carefully between the lines with the back saw. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 45 ; angles, 25 ; sawing, 30 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 26. 

Picture Frame. 

Material, f" chestnut wood, f " birch dowel. Sawing dimensions, two 
pieces, 16 ' x2|" x |" ; two pieces, 14" x 2|" x |" ; eight dowels, f" 
x |" x |". Planing dimensions, two pieces, 16" x 2" x f"; two 
pieces, 14" x 2" x §". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Mitring with mitre box, dowelling, and clamping 
mitred corners. 

New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Mitre box, bit stop. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare two pieces, 16" x 2" x f", and two pieces, 14" x 2" x f". 

2. Saw one end of each piece to an angle of 45°, using the mitre box. 

Save the triangular ends for future use. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 159 

3. Block plane the mitred ends perfectly true, testing with bevel and 

try square. 

4. On the shorter edge of the two longer pieces measure from the 

mitred end 11|" ; square a line across the edge, and with the 
bevel set at 45° draw a line with the knife point across the first 
side. 

5. Place the pieces in the mitre box and saw just outside the line ; 

finish with block plane, as before 

6. Repeat the process on the two shorter pieces, making them 9^" long, 

inside measurement. 

7. With the gauge set at half the thickness gauge from the first side 

the entire length of the mitred ends. 

8. On the gauged lines at each end of the two longer pieces measure 

from the inside edge f ", and make a fine mark with the knife 
point ; measure again from the inside edge 2". 

9. Square lines from the measurements to the unmarked side. 

10. Place the pieces in position on the bench with the marked side 

down, and letter the pieces ; then mark the f " and 2" measure- 
ments on the shorter pieces, and square lines across the gauged 
lines. 

11. At the intersection of the gauge and knife lines prick the centres for 

the holes. 

12. Secure the bit stop to a §" bit, so as to bore a hole but |" deep, and 

bore the holes in each piece, holding the piece in the vise with 
the mitred end parallel with the top of the bench. 

13. On the outside edge of each piece near the ends glue one of the 

triangular pieces so that the mitred end will be opposite and 
parallel to the mitred joint. 

14. After the glue is dry change the corner formed by the inside edge 

and unmarked side to a \" rabbet, by using the rabbet plane. 

15. From a f " dowel saw eight f pieces. Place glue on the ends and 

in the holes at the opposite diagonal corners of the frame, and 
secure in place until dry with hand screws. 

16. Glue the other two corners in the same manner. 

17. Finish with the smoothing plane, cabinet scraper and fine sand- 

paper. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 48 ; angles, 24 ; rabbet, 12 ; finish, 16 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 27. 

Cabinet Picture Frame. 

Material, |" and \" pine wood ; one No. 16 1" and three No. 18 f" wire 
brads. Sawing dimensions, frame, one piece, 17f" x 2A" x|" ; hinge 
and support, one piece, 7i // xlf // x^" ; back board, one piece, 7"x 
4|' / xi". Planing dimensions, two pieces for frame, Bfxl/'xf"; 
two pieces, 7§" x 1" x §" ; one piece for hinge and support, 1" x 1" x 
| /; ; one piece for back board, 6^" x ±\" x \". 



160 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Rabbeting, fret sawing and making halved- 
together joint, and hinge joint. 
New tools : — 

For Bench Work. — Fret saw, T y drill. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a |" board saw a piece 17§" x 2|", from this piece prepare four 

pieces, two 9§ // xl"xf" and two 7f // xl // x§", using the same 
steps in making the four pieces as in model No. 17. 

2. With the marking gauge, try square and sharp-pointed knife, draw 

the lines for the halved-together joints. 

3. Cut the joints with the back saw and chisel. 

4. Glue and clamp the joints in place by using hand screws, and after 

the glue is dry lay out the rabbet with the gauge. 

5. Fasten the frame flat on the bench with the face down, and cut the 

rabbet with the chisel, scoring nearly to the lines and then par- 
ing to the lines. 

6. Prepare a piece for the hinge and support, 7" x 1" x §". 

7. In the centre of the thickness and If" from one end bore a hole with 

a T y drill entirely through. 

8. At the same end on one side draw the construction lines for the 

hinge joint. 

9. Fasten the fret-sawing board to the bench by means of a hand screw, 

and place the hinge piece on the board with the part to be sawed 
over the opening. Being careful to keep the saw blade in a 
vertical position, saw in the line. 

10. Hold the two parts together by means of a 1" wire nail, bevel the 

under side of the tenon, and chamfer the upper part of the 
hinge. 

11. Prepare a piece 7"x4y'xi" • bevel the edges, and fasten the hinge 

in place by means of three §" wire brads. 

12. After the glass and picture are in place fasten in the back with four 

brads. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 36 ; joints, 20 ; hinge, 15 ; drilling, 5 ; finish, 24 ; total, 
100. 

MODEL No. 28. 

Planing Trough. 

Material, If" and f " pine wood ; five No. 13 2" wire brads ; two No. 15 
1\" wire brads; and seven No. 18 \" wire brads. Sawing dimen- 
sions, one piece, 20f"x3|"xl|" ; one piece, 20§"xlf"x|"; one 
piece, 18| // x2| // xi". Planing dimensions, one piece, 20'x3"xlf" ; 
one piece, 20"xlf"xf"; one piece, 18"xl T 3 g "x T y ; one piece, 

ls-xf-x.y'. 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Planing chamfers. 



INDUSTRIAL •EDUCATION. 161 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare a piece, 20" x 3" x If". 

2. Gauge If" from the marked side on the marked edge and from the 

marked edge on the marked side. 

3. Remove the corner by standing the piece upright in the vise and 

sawing just outside the lines. Plane to the lines, testing the 
surface with the bevel set at 135° and held close to the first side. 

4. Make a piece 2" long from the corner piece just removed. 

5. Prepare a piece, 20" x ] f" x f ". 

6. Gauge T 3 g", and chamfer the corner formed by the marked side and 

unmarked edge. 

7. Glue and nail this piece in place, using five No. 13 2" wire brads. 

8. Glue and nail the triangular piece in place, using two No. 15 1\" 

wire brads. 

9. From the piece 18§"x2f"xi" prepare two pieces, one 18"x1 t 3 q"x 

T 7 g ", the other 18" x §" x T y '. 

10. Gauge ^g" on each piece, as in exercise No. 2 in this model. 

11. Glue and nail the two pieces together, using seven No. 18 f " wire 

brads. 

12. Place the piece in the trough, and chamfer by planing to the lines. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 40 ; angles, 25 ; nailing, 14 ; chamfering, 9 ; finish, 12 ; 
total, 100. 

MODEL No. 29. 
Towel Roller. 

Material, If", J" and \" pine wood ; four No. 8 1" screws. Sawing 
dimensions, one piece, 20" x b\" x \" ; one piece, 19^" x2"'x If" ; 
one piece, 4|" x 2\" x |". Planing dimensions, one piece, 19§" x 
b\" x T 7 g" ; one piece, 19" x If" x If" ; two pieces, 2" x 2" x |". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Cylindrical planing, veining and carving. 

New tools: — 

For Bench Work — Planing trough, veiner, skew chisel and wing 
calipers. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a \" board saw a piece 20" x5J". 

2. Make one side flat, joint one edge and block plane both ends, mak- 

ing it 19 1" long. 

3. Square a fine pencil line across the centre of the first side, and 

extend the line on an extra piece, on which find the centre for 
the larger curves 

4. Draw the other construction lines with the gauge, try square and 

knife, and bore the f " holes. 

5. Remove the wood just outside of the lines with the turning saw, and 

finish with the chisel and spoke shave. 

6. Make the lines with the veiner and do the carving with the skew 

chisel. 



162 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

7. Gauge and plane the piece T y thick. 

8. Bore and countersink the holes for the screws for the brackets, and 

those through which the screws go that are to hold the model 
to the wall. 

9. Prepare a piece, 19" x If" xlf" ; draw a circle and octagon on each 

end. 

10. On all four long surfaces gauge lines connecting corresponding 

corners of the octagons. 

11. Place the planing trough in the vise, and with the piece resting in 

the trough plane to the lines. 

12. Remove the next set of corners in the same way, and continue to do 

so until the circumference of the circles at the ends is reached. 

13. Remove the remaining corners with the flat file and sand-paper 

14. At the centre of each end draw a circle f " in diameter ; from each 

end gauge \" around the piece and deepen the line a little with 
the knife. 

15. Saw with the back saw just outside the knife cuts about \" deep. 

16. Remove the wood to the lines with the chisel, and finish the dowels 

with file and sand-paper. 

17. From the piece 4^"x2|"xf" prepare two pieces, 2"x2"x|". 

18. Draw the construction on the pieces, and bore at the centre on one 

side of each a hole f " wide and \" deep. 

19. On the left-hand bracket gauge lines from the sides of the hole to 

the end and halfway across the end. 

20. Cut out the slot between the lines to the depth of \" with chisels. 

21. Clean all parts with fine sand-paper, and screw them together. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 24; curves, 12; roller, 15; carving, 15; boring, 8; 
dowel, 10 ; finish, 16 ; total, 100. 



MODEL No. 30. 
Level. 

Material, If" pine, \" black walnut, one small screw eye, Jg" sheet 
brass. Sawing dimensions, one piece, 24i"x4"xlf"; one piece, 
12^" x 2" x If" ; one piece black walnut, 8" x \" x \". Planing 
dimensions, one piece, 24" x If" x If" ; three pieces, 12" x If" x If" ; 
one piece black walnut, 8" x §" x f ". 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Making blind mortise and tenon joints at the ends 
of a brace and a square pyramid ; brass filing and boring. 

New tools : 

For Bench Work. — Large steel square. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. Prepare one piece, 24" x If" x If" ; three pieces, 12" x If" x If". 

2. Join one of the 12" pieces to the 24 ' piece by a blind mortise and 

tenon joint, making the tenon 1 " long. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 163 

3. Lay out and cut the pyramid at the top end of the upright piece, 

using back saw and block plane. 

4. Being careful to make all the gauge lines from the first side, lay out 

and cut the tenons at the ends of the braces. Cut |" from the 
end of the upper tenons. 

5. Place the base and upright piece together on the bench with the first 

side up. 

6. Be sure that the upright piece is perpendicular to the base by test- 

ing with the large steel square. 

7. Lay the braces in place with the sides of the tenons resting on the 

base and perpendicular, and indicate the exact position of each 
mortise by very fine pencil marks. 

8. Lay out and cut the mortises. 

9. Drawbore as in No. 23 for the dowels. 

10. Make the dowel with the plane, using planing trough. 

11. Mark the lines for the chamfers very lightly with the gauge, and 

chamfer with chisel. 

12. Before the model is put together clean the edges of each piece. 

13. Put the pieces together and drive the dowels in place. 

14. Clean the sides. 

15. At the centre of the base of the pyramid on the front side of the 

upright piece place a small screw eye ; to this tie the plumb 
line. 

16. Make a short vertical mark with the chisel in the centre of the front 

side of the base. 

17. Cut from a piece of T y sheet brass and file to shape a piece for the 

plumb. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 36 ; angles, 21 ; joints, 20 ; pyramid, 9 ; chamfering, 
14 ; total, 100. 

MODEL No. 31. 

Whisk Broom Pocket and Cabinet Picture Frame. 

Material, If" and \" pine wood ; four No. 14 2|" screws ; two §" brass 
escutcheon pins. Sawing dimensions, one piece, 1\" x 3" x If" ; one 
piece, 12f"x7i // xi / ' ; one piece, 1\" x 5 \" x |". Planing dimen- 
sions, one piece, 121" x 7\" x T y ; one piece, 7" x 5|" x -fj' ; two 
pieces, 7 // xl£ // xlf." 

New exercises : — 

In Bench Work. — Inside fret sawing, straight fluting and inside 
quarter fluting. 

Order of Exercises. 

1. From a \" board prepare a piece 12f" x 7\" x T y. 

2. Draw a fine pencil line through the centre of the width the entire 

length of the piece ; from this line draw the other construction 
lines. 

3. Bore a \" hole just inside of each end of the inner ellipse. 



164 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

4. Through these holes place the fret saw blade, and saw with the 

grain just inside the line. 

5. Finish to the line with the knife. 

6. Gauge \" from the first side around the inside of the opening. 

7. Remove the wood from this line to the line forming the outer ellipse, 

using the gouge. 

8. Place the piece in the vise horizontally, and bore the 1" holes form- 

ing part of the outline. 

9. Saw with the turning saw just outside of the remaining lines and 

finish with the spoke shave and chisel. 

10. Yein the lines. 

11. From the piece 7\" x 3" x 1|" prepare two pieces, 7" x 1\" x If. 

12. Flute the grooves with the gouge, and make the rabbet with the 

rabbeting plane. 

13. Prepare a piece, 1" x5|" x T 7 6 ", bore and countersink the holes. 

14. To this piece glue the two pieces, 7" x 1\" x If". 

15. Drive an escutcheon pin \" from the lower end of each rabbet. 

16. Bore the four screw holes through the back. 

17. Secure the two parts together by means of four No. 14 2\" screws. 
Analysis for marking : — 

Dimensions, 24 ; outline, 16 ; inside ellipse, 12 ; quarter fluting, 12 ; 
veining, 16 ; rabbets, 10 ; half fluting, 10 ; total, 100. 

Exercises in Wood Turning. 
As supplementary to the foregoing course in wood-working may 
be suggested the exercises represented in the following plates 
(see Plates XIV. and XV.). 




Plate XIV. 



Supplement 
EXERCISES IN WO' 




•*-***«._ .1 



2, & 




Plate XV. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 165 



Appendix H 



THE NORTHAMPTON SYSTEM OF MANUAL TRAINING. 



By FREDERIC A. HINCKLEY. 



The purpose of this system is to supply at small expense manual 
training for primary and grammar grades which can be taught in 
the school-room, and if necessary by the regular teacher. 

The projector, if he may so style himself, is indebted to Mr. 
George B. Kilbon of Springfield for the idea of using the jack- 
knife, and for the suggestion of utilizing the school-room for 
manual training work, also for help in certain practical details. 
He is indebted to Miss E. C. Elder, superintendent of free kin- 
dergartens in Buffalo, for the thought of adapting the system to 
primary grades and for much co-operation in evolving the line- 
cutting tablet work for those grades. Many of the other elements 
of the course, as will be easily seen, have been suggested to him 
by the study of processes already in existence. His attempt has 
been to produce, out of all the materials at hand, assisted by 
the kind co-operation of others, a logical, progressive American 
system, in keeping with public-school methods, and easily made 
a part of public-school administration. He has named it the 
" Northampton System," because that city has adopted it and 
made it a required part of her school work. 

The tools needed at the beginning are pencil, rule and pocket 
knife. Afterward are added from time to time dividers, hammer, 
screw driver, gimlet, gauge and try square. At first the work is 
done on the school desk. With the introduction of the hammer a 
plain portable desk cover is provided, which transforms the desk 
to a simple work bench. Only such tools and materials are selected 
as are available in the ordinary school-room. 

The system is only in its second year of practical administration 
here, and hence has not been graded throughout. The plan has 



166 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

been to begin with the second year of school, and to continue the 
course to the graduation from the grammar grade, or the com- 
pletion of the ninth year ; thus practically bridging the chasm 
between the hand- work of the kindergarten and the advanced man- 
ual training shops of the high-school grade. Each room has two 
periods a week of thirty minutes each, that being the time given 
to other recitations. For the present all the grades begin at the 
beginning, thus securing ample time for permanent grading in the 
light of experience. The teachers meet with the projector once a 
week for an hour and a half, and easily become interested and 
proficient in the work, as do the children, and our special teacher 
of drawing now gives one-fourth of her time to its supervision. 

So far as the use of the knife is concerned, the work is divided 
into three parts, — cutting of lines, cutting of surfaces, cutting of 
solids. 

We did not in Northampton begin the work with the first year 
of the primary school, for two reasons : first, it was a fair ques- 
tion, and is, we think, still, whether the children in that grade are 
not too young to use the knife with precision ; second, the ten- 
dency in all first-year primary work toward kindergarten methods, 
such as paper folding and card-board modelling, is really a very 
good preparation for the drawing and cutting on wood to follow. 

I will now try to indicate as briefly as possible the general char- 
acter of our eight-years course, as planned and in process of ap- 
plication. The second, third and fourth years of school — that 
is, the highest three grades of the primary school — are provided 
with line cutting. We have at present fifteen plates, covering 
eighty tablets, of this kind of instruction. I give a few illustra- 
tions, as hints of what this work is, because they are quite funda- 
mental to an understanding of the course. The tablets used are 
of bass-wood, 3 J inches square and for border patterns 8x2 inches, 
and all £ inch thick. The lessons are dictated, not copied, and 
drawn from measurement, before being cut. After whatever pre- 
liminary lessons in the use of rule and pencil which may be neces- 
sary have been given, the first tablet is furnished the pupil, and he 
is taught to know the grain of the wood, and to place the tablet 
for drawing purposes so that the grain will run from back to front 
of his desk. His first series of sixteen tablets, including, before 
he gets through with them, at least two of original designs, are 
limited to vertical and horizontal lines, first the elements, then 
combination of the elements, then designs made from the elements. 
For example, these cuts, drawn to a scale of J inch to the inch, 
will show the character of the work and suggest the sequence. 
Nos. 1 and 2 are the elements, vertical and horizontal lines ; No. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



167 



3, combination of the same ; No. 4, a design ; and No. 5, an his- 
toric border pattern. 



^ 



r 


If 


lf 


IS] 


If 


tj 


Lb 


- 



Having completed the series in vertical and horizontal lines, the 
next step is a series of sixteen in oblique lines. The following 
cuts will illustrate it sufficiently, again Nos. 1 and 2 being the 



168 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



elements, No. 3 combination of the elements, No. 4 a design and 
No. 5 an historic border pattern. 








Following the oblique lines come sixteen tablets, which are com- 
binations of the vertical, horizontal and oblique ; and then, with 
the introduction of a new tool, the dividers, come sixteen tablets 






INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



169 



of curved lines, with elements, combination, design and border as 
before. 






3. 





The line-cutting section of the system is now completed, with 
sixteen tablets which represent combinations of all the lines. 

Now follows what we have called, by way of distinction, surface 
cutting. It consists, first, of cutting out in ^ inch stock the 
square, triangle, pentagon, hexagon, octagon, circle, ellipse and 
oval ; second, of a series of crosses and various vase forms ; third, 



170 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



of openings, vertical and horizontal, oblique, circular; fourth, in 
£ inch stock of small and cabinet-sized frame fronts with line 
ornamentation. 

This brings us to the sixth year of school, when a series of 
problems with a small hammer and § and ^ inch No. 20 wire brads 
are introduced. First £ inch and afterwards j- inch stock is 
furnished, and ten problems in each thickness, passing from a 
simple joint to various kinds of boxes, performed. Then follow 
problems with screw driver and small screws, afterward the year 
being finished with a series of gimlet problems. 

The seventh year welcomes two new tools, the gauge and try 
square. Now for the first time the planed stock is provided in 
pieces of convenient size, and the pupil, so far as it can be done 
with knife, gauge and try square, gets out his material. Plain and 
ornamental box and frame work is the task provided for this year. 

For the eighth year jointing and fitting problems are furnished, 
leading up gradually to lock- joint boxes, frames, etc. 

The following illustrations will serve to suggest the form study 
and the evolution in work involved in the cutting of crystal 
models in the ninth year. The cuts are made to a scale of about 
^ inch to the inch. 



Isometric System : the Cube furnished. 



f< 


s 




.'' 


J 




^. 


'J 


i 

< 

,i — . 




t f**'* 










^< 


s* 




^ — _. . 


^ 




INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 171 

Hexagonal System : the Bight Prism furnished. 






O 






MX 










172 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The ninth year is chiefly devoted to the cutting of solids. Here 
the material, which up to this time has been bass-wood, is changed 
to soft pine. Cubes, 1| inches, are furnished, and from them are 
evolved through a series of four figures the cylinder, through a 
series of five figures the cone, and through a series of seven figures 
the sphere. In a similar manner from the right prism thus 
furnished is evolved through a series of six figures the ellipsoid, 
and from a thick square through a series of five figures the ring. 
Then follows the cutting of fifty odd crystal forms, representa- 
tive of the six systems of crystallization, and designed to be 
accompanied with specimens, and more or less of study, of the 
crystals themselves. 

"We find our teachers and scholars, without distinction of sex, 
warmly interested in all the features of this work, and are already 
able to show very interesting and creditable original work on their 
part. 

It is difficult to give any adequate idea of a system in the com- 
pass of an article like this, for the most part unillustrated. 

I will give here what may prove of interest, the expense of one 
full set of tools, and a table showing the cost of our first year's 
experimental work in one of the school buildings in this city. 

Expense of tools : pencil, $0.02 ; rule, $0.02 ; knife, $0.35 ; 
dividers, $0.08 ; hammer, $0.10 ; screw driver, $0.08 ; gimlet, 
$0.06 ; gauge, $0.12 ; try square, $0.17 ; total, $1.00. 

Cost of first year's work in a building containing nine rooms, 
averaging fifty pupils each, or a total of four hundred and fifty 
pupils (time, two periods per week of thirty minutes each) : 50 
knives, at $0.35, $17.50; 100 pencils, at $0.02, $2.00; 50 rules, 
at $0.02, $1.00; 16,000 tablets, at $4.50 per thousand, $72.00; 
1 set plates, entire course, $5.00; total, $97.50. 

The above figures do not include, as will be observed, the teach- 
ing of the teachers. Where it can be afforded there may well be a 
special teacher ; but there is nothing in the nature of the work to 
prevent its being administered, as is being done here, by the 
regular teachers, and in many ways it will prove helpful to them 
in general teaching and discipline. The whole system is now in 
such shape that the expense of equipping teachers accustomed to 
drawing and to dictating other lessons need not be large. 

Northampton, Mass., March 15, 1893. 



INDUSTRIAL. EDUCATION. 



173 



Appendix I 



MANUAL TRAINING IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF FALL 
RIVER, WALTHAM, SALEM AND SPRINGFIELD. 

B. M. C. Durfee High School, Fall River, Mass. 
By "WILLIAM CONNELL, Superintendent of Schools. 



The manual training course forms one of the regular four-year 
courses of the B. M. C. Durfee High School, and consists of a 
combination of mathematics, sciences, modern languages, shop 
work and drawing. 

The shop and drawing room are located on the ground floor of 
the high-school building. 

The equipment of the shop is as follows : — 

For Wood-working. 

1. Twenty-one benches, each one supplied with a " quick-grip" 
patent vise, and four lockers to hold work and aprons. Tool 
drawers or closets are built in each bench. 

Each bench is supplied with a set of hand-tools, as follows : 
fifteen-inch jack plane, eight-inch smooth plane, six-inch block 
plane, twenty-inch cross-cut saw, twenty-four-inch rip saw, ten- 
inch back saw, six chisels, three gouges, large and small try 
squares, screw driver, brace and bits, marking gauge, dividers, 
bevel, two-foot rule, brad awls, mallet, hammer, oil stone, oil can 
and bench brush. Several twenty-two-inch jointer planes, draw 
knives, large steel squares and straight edges are distributed 
among the benches, and a number of rasps, bits, compass saws, 
carving tools, matching and rebating planes, together with nails, 
screws, glue, sand-paper, etc., are supplied to classes as needed. 

2. Twelve speed lathes, ten and one-fourth inch swing by 
twenty-two inches to twenty-four inches between centres are for 
wood turning. These lathes are mounted on benches, which are 



174 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

built with drawers for holding tools, and closets for work and shop 
clothes. Each lathe is supplied with large and small face plates, 
screw chuck, spur and cone centres, long and short T rests, rule, 
calipers, mallet, four turner's gouges, three chisels, parting tool, 
boring tool and square-nose chisel. 

3. Large band-saw machine, for cutting stock to convenient 
sizes and for practice in sawing curved forms. 

For Iron Working. 

Two fourteen-inch screw-cutting engine lathes, five-foot bed ; 
two fourteen-inch plain engine lathes with five-foot bed ; two 
thirteen-inch hand-lathes, with five-foot bed, for filing, polishing, 
etc. ; one iron-planing machine, sixteen inches by fourteen inches, 
with five-and-one-half-foot bed ; one emery grinder and one grind- 
stone ; twenty-seven feet of bench-room, provided with six Parker 
vises. Each engine lathe has a set of lathe tools, and there are 
chucks of various sizes, both universal and independent. For 
bench work there is an assortment of hammers, chisels, files, 
scratch awls, punches and dividers, and also sets of reamers, twist 
drills, arbors, taps and die plates, scales of various sizes and 
divisions, machinist's steel squares, levels, protractor, screw 
gauges, chuck drills and hand tools for metal turning. Power to 
drive the machines is furnished by a seven-and-a-half horse-power 
Sprague electric motor. 

The course of work at present is as follows : — 

Freshman Year. 

Algebra, English, physiology and physical geography; shop 
work : bench exercises in wood. Divisions of two-foot rule ; how 
to measure correctly and "layoff" dimensions with knife and 
pencil. Explanation of jack and smooth plane ; how to sharpen, 
adjust and use the planes. Planing a true surface. Use of try 
square. Planing one side of stock " square" with face side. Use 
of marking gauge. Planing to gauge line, and to given dimen- 
sion. Explanation of cross-cut and rip saw teeth. How to use 
the saw correctly. Sawing given length, across grain and with the 
object of sawing square with face side, each sawing being tested 
with try square to note inaccuracies. Sawing with back saw to 
knife line, as in joining. Use of block plane on end grain. 

The planing and sawing exercises introduce the rule, dividers, 
marking gauge, bevel and try square, and separate exercises in 
the use of these " laying out" tools are given when necessary, to 
impress from the start the necessity of clean, accurate laying down 
of working lines. The class then learns to construct, on a smooth 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 175 

piece of wood, angles of 90°, 60°, 30°, 45°, 15° and 75°, and the 
4 ' angle board" is used in performing succeeding exercises when 
bevel lines are required. A square frame is next made, which 
gives practice in sawing the half-lap joints with back saw, and 
shows tne importance of each stroke when several pieces are to 
form a whole. 

As au application of planing aud sawing exercises, a "mitre 
box" is made, and its accuracy tested by sawing in it the 
joints for a mitred frame. Theu follows an exercise in boring 
holes square with face side of block, chamfering edges with block 
plane, paring with chisels, producing a semi-circular end from 
square end of board, chamfers of various shapes with chisel, cut- 
ting flutings with gouges, making gain joints, square and oblique 
halvings, mortise and tenon joints, as through, blind, open, relish, 
rafter, keyed and dovetailing. A piece of framework combining 
several of these joints is next made, and the course is completed 
by making a finished article, as a blacking box or bookcase, which 
serves to apply the different principles and processes of the year's 
work to a piece of construction. 

Every exercise is made from a scale blue print, and the class is 
kept together on the same exercise, so that work progresses 
systematically. The freshman class has four periods of fifty 
minutes each per week. 

SopJwmore Year. 

Plane geometry, English, botany and zoology ; shop work ; 
mechanical drawing. The shop work is wood turning. Names of 
parts of speed lathe, and manipulation in using and mounting 
work for turning. Straight cylinders with gouge, finishing cut 
with skew chisel. Difference between scraping and cutting. 
Convex curve. Concave curve. Reverse curve. Square shoulder. 
Taper cylinder. Rounding square corner. Beading. Balls. 
Scallops. Fitting plug to holes of various diameters ; combina- 
tions of these elemental forms in turning a baluster, post and 
a spindle, which introduces duplication of shapes on each side of 
a centre. Face plate and chuck work, rosette, hollow stepped 
cylinder, box and cover, goblet, napkin ring, and piece of con- 
struction in the form of a wall towel rack and small centre stand, 
which apply nearly all of the principles and processes of the year's 
work. 

The work is done entirely from blue prints, and conducted as 
class work. 

The mechanical drawing of this year consists of : a sheet to 
acquire use of instruments in drawing horizontal, vertical and 



176 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

oblique lines, intersecting with clean-cut junctions, circles and 
compound lines formed of tangent straight and circular lines and 
of tangent circular arcs ; three sheets of geometrical constructions, 
which are given mainly for practice in accurate lining and compass 
work ; a sheet of shade-lining examples. 

The theory of orthographic projections is explained by lectures 
and studied by the aid of paper planes, and eight or nine sheets 
are drawn, solving problems regarding the x-ectangular, triangular 
and hexagonal prism and pyramid, the cylinder and the cone, with 
oblique projections, development and intersections of same and 
sectional views. Isometric drawing is then taken up, and one or 
two sheets, illustrating the application of projections to simple 
parts of machines, are drawn, some detail of such object being 
put into isometric. 

The equipment for drawing consists of sixteen drawing trestles, 
with drawer and racks on the sides to hold boards ; T squares and 
boards, triangles, scales ; dividers with pen, pencil and needle 
point; spring-bow pencils and bow pens, ruling pens, etc., suffi- 
cient for sixteen boys in a class. 

The sophomores work four periods of fifty minutes each per 
week in the shop, and the same length of time in drawing room. 

Junior Year. 
Solid geometry and trigonometry, French or German, physics, 
shop work, mechanical drawing. The shop work of this year is 
work in metal, and consists of the following exercises : study 
of construction and manipulation of engine lathe and planing 
machine. 

1. Turning straight cylinder, introducing centring, centre 
drilling, countersinking, squaring ends, roughing and finishing 
cuts, calipering, and filing and polishing in speed lathe. 

2. Stepped cylinder, additional practice in turning to size and 
squaring shoulders. 

3. Taper turning, and hand-tooling curves. 

4. Screw cutting, right and left hand thread on ends of same 
stock piece. 

5. Fitting bolt to hole in a collar, which has first been twist 
drilled and reamed to given size, and then turned on an arbor to 
size and shape of drawing. 

6. Cutting thread of standard size on bolt, fitting nut to same, 
first tapping the nut, and filing to hexagon shape the bolt head 
and the nut, and polishing the same. 

7. " Chucking" a five and one-half inch pulley, chuck drilling 
the hub, turning rim and hub to size and filing. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 177 

8. Making a ball handle, introducing the roughing out of 
curves in engine lathe, free-hand, and the hand-tooling of same 
to a finish in speed lathe ; the fitting of two parts of handle by 
die stock and tap. 

9. Cutting outside and inside V thread on one end of plug and 
cap, and outside and inside square thread on other end of plug 
and ring ; boring tool. 

10. Planing-machine exercise : planing block square all over, 
planing out square groove, planing out 45° V groove. 

11. Chipping and filing bevel-edge, chipping and filing a rectan- 
gular hole from bored hole. 

12. Construction of a jack screw. 

All work is done from blue prints. While it is not possible to 
keep the class together, or take up these exercises always in order 
named, instructions are given to the class as a whole, and notes 
are taken down, so that the instruction may be as much systema- 
tized as possible. Much individual instruction and help must of 
course be given where such slight differences of shape and adjust- 
ment of tools cause such different results. 

The drawing of this year consists in making working drawings 
of details of machines. Free-hand sketches are made first, and 
dimensioned, and these sketches are worked up into scale drawings 
with dimensions. The subjects are drawn partly from the object, 
partly from sketches and explanations of the instructor. Among 
the drawings thus executed may be mentioned gear blank, split 
pulley, bolts and screw threads, eccentric and strap, connecting 
rod with all details drawn separately, from which the class were to 
construct, without help, an assembly drawing, head stock, tail 
stock, etc. The drawings are made to various scales, and sections 
are drawn, and one view obtained from others given, to test the 
ability of the pupil to grasp clearly the correct appearance of the 
object which he is representing. 

The juniors work in shop four periods of fifty minutes each per 
week, and in drawing room three periods of fifty minutes each 
per week. 

Senior Year. 

Chemistry, English, French or German, shop work, drawing. 
The shop work and drawing of this year consist at present of the 
designing, drawing and construction of an article of cabinet work. 
This work is made original as far as possible, and is iutended to 
give some chance for individual judgment in shaping and sizing 
of parts, and in joining together of various portions of a finished 
article. Among the projects thus made may be mentioned writing 
desks, tables, cabinet book case, hall stand, coin cabinet, etc. 



178 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The drawing of this year consists, first, of the making of the 
necessary drawing for the before-mentioned cabinet project, and 
after that some finished drawing of a machine or engine is made, 
this being determined by the amount of time available. 

The senior class works four periods a week in shop, and in 
drawing room two periods a week. 



School at Waltham, Mass. 

By ¥M. F. JARVIS, Chairman Committee ox Manual Training. 

Waltham, Mass., April 12, 1893. 
Edwin P. Seaver. 

Dear Sir: — Yours of March 31 to Mr. Whittemore has been 
referred to me for reply. 

Our present system of manual training was established in 1891, 
and is a modification of sloyd. Pupils are admitted from the 
seventh, eighth and ninth grades of the grammar school, and the 
first two years of the high school, the latter being a special course 
provided for this department. 

We have a regular graded system for the manual work, com- 
mencing with simple forms of models, progressing through those 
more difficult, including exercises in wood turning, carving and 
pattern making, to iron work (forging, welding, tempering and 
chipping and filing) . Each exercise is embodied in a model that is 
more or less familiar to the pupil, there being no purely exercise 
work upon abstract forms. By this means pupils get continuous 
review work, as the advanced models combine a variety of old with 
new exercises. Each model is made from a drawing done by the 
pupil, at present under the direction of the instructor of manual 
training, except those in the iron department, which are made from 
blue prints. It is intended that the models shall occupy the time 
of the pupils for five years, working according to the present 
schedule, which is as follows : boys of the seventh and eighth 
grades work one period of two hours a week ; those of the ninth 
grade, two periods of two hours each a week. The high school 
class work two hours a day. Below is the curriculum of this 
department : — 

First and Second Years, 
Seventh and eighth grades, — one period a week. Elementary 
work in wood : marking, sawing, squaring, nailing, filing, chisel- 
ling, gluing, sand-papering, etc. Uses of tools ; drawing. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 179 



Third Year. 
Ninth grade, — two periods a week. Advanced work in wood : 
boring, planing, bevelling, carving, grooving, dovetailing, draw- 
ing. 

Fourth Year. 

First Half. — High school, — two hours a day. Academic 
studies : English, three times a week ; geometry, four times a 
week ; physics, four times a week ; drawing. Manual work : 
joint making, wood turning, staining, varnishing, grinding of 
tools, lectures on woods. 

Second Half. — Academic studies : English, three times a week ; 
civics, four times a week ; physics, four times a week ; drawing. 
Manual work : scraping and polishing, carving, saw filing, lectures 
on woods and their uses, chipping and filing metals. 



Fifth Year. 

First Half. — High school, — two hours a day. Academic 
studies : English, three- times a week ; algebra, four times a week ; 
geometry, four times a week ; chemistry, four times a week ; draw- 
ing. Manual work : advanced wood-working, forging, welding 
and tempering, soldering and brazing, lectures on metals and their 
uses. 

Second Half. — Academic studies : English, three times a week ; 
algebra, four times a week ; geometry, four times a week ; draw- 
ing. Manual work : pattern making, drilling and chipping and 
filing of metals. 

The classes are formed at the beginning of the year from 
volunteers, but, having joined a class, the pupil is required to give 
regular attendance. A class of girls from the high school was 
formed last September, and much interest is manifested by them. 
The whole number of pupils in this school is one hundred and fifty- 
nine ; the per cent, of attendance is ninety-four. 

The equipment for the work of the three grammar grades is as 
follows : twenty-four benches, each of which is supplied with a 
knife, try square, marking gauge, wooden mallet, twenty-four 
inch rule, a smoothing and block plane and pencil. In addition 
to these tools a case is provided in the room containing every 
other tool that may be required in the work, to be used in common 
by the pupils. Inasmuch as the different classes come at different 
times, each bench is used by six or seven boys in the course of a 



180 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

week, but each boy is responsible for the condition of his bench 
and tools when he has finished his day's work. Two hundred 
closed lockers are provided, to enable the boys to keep their 
unfinished work and the drawings in a neat condition. 

The cost of the foregoing is : for twenty-four benches, $312 ; 
tools, $150 ; lockers, $150 ; tool cabinet, $25 ; total, $637. 

For the work in the advanced department there are provided : 
fifteen benches, at a cost of $195 ; five speed lathes, $375 ; one- 
fifth horse-power electric motor, $325 ; four forges, $60 ; four 
anvils, $48 ; ten vises, $60 ; tools, $250 ; total, $1,313. 

The cost of maintaining the school, with two instructors, is 
about $2,500 per annum. 

Boys are required to provide themselves with a uniform working 
suit, and to conduct themselves upon general principles of good 
order. 

Benches and suitable tools for carving are among the equipment, 
as well as tool rooms and model rooms in each department. 



School at Salem, Mass. 

By W. A. MO WRY, Superintendent of Schools. 

Salem, April 6, 1893. 
Edwin P. Seavek, Superintendent of Schools, Boston. 
■ My Dear Sir : — In reply to yours of the 3d I beg to say, — 
Salem has for some time past given a minimum of attention to the 
subject of manual training in connection with her public schools. 
She has : — 

1. The Curwen Manual Training School, for instruction in the 
use of tools in wood-working. The course is for one year, and 
the pupils are from the grammar schools. There are ten classes 
of twelve boys each. They all have one lesson — a half day's 
session — per week. 

2. The Cooking School, for girls. This gives instruction in 
cooking to five classes of sixteen each, a half-day lesson each week. 
These pupils are from the upper grades of the grammar schools. 

3. During the winter, November till March, the evening drawing 
schools (one for free-hand and one for mechanical drawing). 
These schools are principally for those outside of the day schools. 

4. Drawing in the public day schools. 

This is as far as the city has gone in manual training, and I see 
no disposition to go further at present. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 181 

Springfield Manual Training School. 
By GEORGE B. KILBON, Principal. 

WJiat has been Done. 

In 1886 an appropriation of $1,000 was made, for an experi- 
ment ; $500 of it was expended in purchasing an equipment of 
twelve sets of tools, and the remaining $500 in salary, the school 
sessions continuing as long as the money lasted. Since then the 
appropriations have been made as follows: in 1887, $3,000; in 
1888, $3,000 ; in 1889, $4,000 ; in 1890, $4,000 ; in 1891, $4,500 ; 
in 1892, $4,500. Of these sums,- an average of $500 has been 
expended yearly in making additions to the equipment, which is 
now valued at $3,500, and consists of eighteen wood-working 
benches and tools, twelve wood-turning lathes and tools, three 
grindstones, one scroll saw, twelve molding troughs and tools, 
five forges, and tools with blower and exhauster large enough for 
twelve two-engine lathes, one planer, one drill press, seven vises 
for iron filing, with tools and a fifteen horse-power electromotor. 

The room occupied is the first floor and the basement of a build- 
ing forty-seven feet by seventy-three feet ; three teachers are 
employed. 

The work is organized in two departments ; namely, high school 
and senior grammar. A three-years course is provided for the 
high school, consisting of one and a half hours' lessons each after- 
noon in joinery, wood turning, carving, pattern making, molding 
and plaster casting, forging, iron filing, planing and turning, and 
machine building. During the three years the students receive 
drawing lessons three-quarters of an hour each forenoon. The 
work is voluntary, and students are admitted from all high-school 
courses. 

In the senior grammar department lessons are given (at the 
manual training building) to the ninth grade one and a half hours 
each week in the forenoon, and to the eighth grade one and a half 
hours each fortnight, from 4.30 to 6, afternoons. These lessons 
are in elementary wood-work, on the American system of problems 
in the beginning, followed by the making of articles. All articles 
regularly made are previously drawn at the ordinary school-room 
under the direction of the drawing supervisor. Various articles of 
equipment needed in the school have also been made by the pupils. 

Manual training is also provided for grades six and seven by 
means of knife work. This is done in the ordinary school-room 
and by the ordinary teacher, desks being protected by remov- 
able covers. Lessons are three-quarters of an hour each week. 



182 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Teachers prepare themselves by attending the manual training 
school one and a half hours each week. 

The manual training of the primary grades I., II. and III. con- 
sists of clay modelling, paper folding, sewing on pricked cards, 
and cutting and pasting colored papers to illustrate principles of 
design. 

Construction in card-board commences in grade III., and is con- 
tinued through grade VII., as is the making of designs in colored 
paper. 

Girls have sewing in grades IV., V., VI. and VII., and cooking 
in grade VII. The sewing in grades IV., V. and VI. is in the 
form of elementary problems ; in grade VII. it is in garment mak- 
ing. Girls measure a model figure, draw the patterns and cut 
them, then from the patterns cut garments and make them. 

What is Proposed. 

For boys, a continual system of manual training from the first 
school year to and through the third high-school year, consisting 
of clay modelling, paper cutting and construction in card-board, 
using the rule with accuracy, in the first four years and onward ; 
knife work in the fifth, sixth and seventh years ; elementary wood- 
work with a full complement of tools in the eighth and ninth 
years ; and an extension of the room and equipment at the manual 
training school sufficient to give lessons to classes of twenty in 
the above-mentioned high-school branches, coupled with a recog- 
nition of manual training as a part of the regular high-school 
work. 

For girls, a continuous system, as for boys, in clay modelling, 
paper cutting and card-board construction ; with sewing from 
grades V. to VII., and cooking in grades VII. and VIII. and in 
the high-school junior year. The high-school cooking will be in 
connection with physics and chemistry. 



A pamphlet, published by the school committee of Springfield, 
and giving a full account of the Springfield Manual Training 
School, its equipment and its exercises, is here reprinted, with 
the omission of some portions not necessary to our present pur- 
pose. — The Commissioners. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 183 

A course of weekly lessons covering one year has been established 
for the ninth grammar grade, and a course of daily lessons covering 
three years for the high school. 

Six classes have been organized this year from eighth grammar 
grades, averaging fifteen pupils to each class. Three of these classes 
receive lessons Monday, Tuesday and Thursday of one week, from 4.30 
to 5.45 p. M., and the remaining three classes on the following week, 
providing one lesson a fortnight for each class. Their lessons are the 
same as those hitherto given to the ninth grade. 

On Wednesday of each week, at the above hour, a class of high-school 
girls receive a lesson in general tool work, and on Friday a class of 
teachers in knife work. 

Kxefe Work. 

For four years there has been an interesting experiment in knife work 
in progress at the Hooker Grammar School in grades five to seven, 
inclusive, and during the last two years at the Tapley School. Teachers 
who give this instruction take lessons preparatory thereto at the Manual 
Training School. 

The knife is the only cutting tool used. Problems for this work were 
arranged by the principal of the Manual Training School, and those tor 
the fifth grade, which are chiefly geometric forms cut from thin wood, 
appear in the cuts immediately following. 

Minute descriptions regarding their construction are published by the 
Milton Bradley Company of this city, who also supply the material. 

The work is done in the ordinary school-room on the ordinary school 
desks, which are protected from injury by a temporary cover of one- 
half inch pine. 



184 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



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INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



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188 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Equipment. 

The wood-working equipment of the Manual Training School consists 
of eighteen benches, eighteen sets of tools, three hundred and fifty-two 
drawers for holding work and forty drawers for holding prepared ma- 
terial, costing $750. Also, twelve wood-turning lathes, costing $600 ; 
three grindstones, costing $50 ; the necessary shafting, pulleys and 
belts, $150. 

The school is also furnished with twenty-four sets of carving tools, 
each set being arranged in a portable tray, and with a cabinet to hold 
the trays. Cost of carving equipments, $205. Its moulding equipment 
consists of twelve troughs and tools, costing $215. Calcined plaster is 
used for pouring. 

The iron equipment consists of two engine lathes, one planer, one 
drill press, one forge, four iron vises and tools, costing $1,600. The six 
horse-power Shipman engine which has hitherto furnished power for 
the school was exchanged in December, 1891, for a fifteen horse-power 
electromotor, manufactured by the Elektron Manufacturing Company 
of this city. 

The benches for wood-working are 4} ft. long x 2 ft. wide x 34 in. 
high. Pupils of small stature are accommodated by movable platforms. 
The bench tops should be two or three inches above the wrist when the 
pupil stands erect. Benches are arranged in rows about three feet apart 
each way. 

The following is a list of tools with which each bench is supplied : 
bevel, 6 in ; bit brace ; bits, auger, \, §, | in. ; bits, drill, %\, 3 7 5 in. ; brad 
awls in handle ; chisels, firmer, f , \, i, 1 in. ; countersink ; dividers with 
pencil ; gauge ; gouge, \ in. inside, ground ; gouge, f in. outside, ground ; 
hammer, claw ; hammer, p'een ; hand screw, 10 in. ; knife with two 
blades ; mallet ; oil stone ; oil can ; one lead pencil, medium ;■ one very 
hard ; plane, the Bailey iron smooth, 8 in. ; plane, the Bailey iron block, 
6 in. ; plane, wood smooth, 8 in. ; pliers ; rule, 12 in., solid boxwood ; 
saw, 16 in., panel, slitting; saw, 16 in., panel, cutting-ofT ; saw, 10 in., 
back ; saw block ; screw driver, 3 in. ; try square, 4 in. ; dust pan ; 
broom for floor ; brush for bench top ; whisk broom for clothing. 

The school is further supplied with eight 22 in. iron Bailey jointers, 
six framing squares, and two 25 in. hand saws. 

Each bench is provided with a vise at the left-hand end, and a shove- 
plane block at the right. (See figures following.) On or about each 
bench a place is provided for each tool (see right and left elevations, 
next page, en which the tools there kept are shown in position). The 
phototypes from which these figures are printed were produced from 
scale drawings of the bench made by pupils, and are one-sixteenth of 
full size. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



1S9 




Front Elevation. 




190 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The three hundred and fifty-two drawers are each 21 in. long x 10 
in. wide x 1\ in. deep, inside measure, and are inclosed in cupboards, 
each 6 ft. high x 4 ft. 5 in. wide x 2 ft. deep, each cupboard containing 
thirty-two drawers. Each pupil has a drawer for his exclusive use. 

Pupils work in classes not exceeding eighteen, one and one-half hours 
constituting a lesson. 

The twelve lathes for wood-turning are 9 in. swing, six of them 3^ ft. 
bed and six 4 ft. bed, and were made by F. E. Reed of Worcester, Mass. 
Each lathe is provided with head and tail centres, screw face plate 4 in. 
diameter, plain face plate 6 in. diameter, 5 in. rest, 10 in. rest, oiler, oil 
stone, slip stone and the following tools : 1 in. gouge, ground straight 
across the end, for roughing ; § in. gouge, round end ; § in. gouge, round 
end ; 1 in. chisel, skew edge ; f in. chisel, round edge ; § in. chisel^ 
skew edge ; \ in. chisel, straight edge ; \ in. chisel, for parting ; mallet ; 
10 in. calipers ; 7 in. dividers ; rule and lead pencil ; dust brush and 
pan. 

The carving equipment of twenty-four sets was purchased of White,- 
Van Glahn & Co., New York, and Goodnow & Wightman, Boston. 
It comprises seventeen tools in each set, designated in J. B. Addis 1 
catalogue as follows : \ in , No. 1 ; \ in., No. 1 ; f in., No. 2 ; § in., No. 3 ; 
| in., No. 4 ; f in., No. 5 ; T 7 g in., No. 5 ; \ in., No. 7 ; \ in., No. 7 ; T 7 g in., 
No. 9 ; | in., No. 9 ; & in., No. 9 ; \ in., No. 11 ; \ in., No. 11 ; ^ in., 
No. 11; \ in, No. 39; \ in., No. 39. Also a pencil gauge, and two 
stamps, one \ in. square, and one \ x f in., both of which were made by 
the pupils. Pupils also made octagonal handles for the above tools. 

The drawing room is supplied with twenty-four wooden tables of 
original design, twenty-four T squares, twenty-four pairs of triangles, 
fifty drawing boards, with a rack to hold them, and a case of trays to 
store drawings, also of original design. Pupils furnish their own draw- 
ing instruments. Each table is 36 in. high, the dimensions of the top 
being 34 in. x 22 in., and is provided with four drawers, 14 in. x 6^x3}, 
inside measure, each drawer having a metallic projection or staple on 
the side, corresponding when the drawer is closed to a like projection 
on the side of its pocket, so that the hasp of a small padlock may be 
thrust through the staples, thus enabling pupils who wish to secure each 
his own instruments. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



191 



The following is a perspective view of one of the drawing tables, the 
cost being $7.50 each : — 




The study of practical mechanics closely resembles that of arithmetic. 
As it is necessary in arithmetic first to learn to write numbers (nota- 
tion) , so in mechanics it is necessary first to learn to write forms 
(drawing). As in arithmetic, so in mechanics, there are four funda- 
mental rules that must be thoroughly understood and constantly 
practised. They are as follows : — 

Rule First. — Measure accurately, according to plan. 

Rule Second. — Make perfect lines. 

Rule Third. — With rapid-cutting tools, work as near to lines as can 
be done with safety. 

Rule Fourth. — With fine-cutting tools, work exactly to lines. 

It will be seen from the above rules that accuracy of result is equally 
necessary in both studies. If the result of an arithmetical problem is 
145, any other result is incorrect, however small the fraction of variation ; 
and, if a board is required to be made 6 in. long x 2\ in. wide, the result 
is not correct if it varies at all from that measurement. 

In the Springfield Manual Training School it has been deemed wise 
to give to grammar pupils an elementary course, which covers the use 
of each class of tools in the set, and which trains in accordance with the 
above rules. This course is as follows : — 



Elementary Couese in the Use of Wood-working Tools. 
(Designed for Beginners.) 
As each tool is taken in hand, describe it thoroughly and name its parts. 
Prepare six Avail-plates, 19 in. x 25 in., showing position of hands in 
holding hammer, try square, gauge, saw and chisel, and position of 
nails in boxes. 



192 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Lesson I. — Use of the Hammer. 

Problem I. — Provide for each pupil a block of pine 8 in. x 1| in. x 1| 
in. On one side draw three pencil lines lengthwise, dividing the block 
in four equal spaces. Place points on each line at every inch, and on 
one line drive a row of Qd. steel wire nails, leaving the heads standing 
f in. above the wood. (See wall -plate for position of hand in holding 
hammer ) 

Problem 2. — Draw the above driven nails. 

Problem 3. — In a similar manner drive a row of 6cZ. cut nails on a 
second line, and draw them 

Problem 4 — On a line \ in. from the edge of the block, drive a row 
of 1 in. No. 18 steel wire nails, having their points bent so the nails will 
curve and come out on the adjacent side, meeting a line drawn \ in. 
from the edge 

Problem 5. — Take a piece 2 x 2 x | for a base, and a piece 2 x | x | 
for a stud, and toe-nail stud to corner of base, using | in. patent brads. 

Problem 6. — Take two pieces 4 in. x § in. x ^ in. and nail them to 
the edge of a board 4 in. x 2 in. x T 5 g in., and let them represent joists. 
Furnish floor boards f in. wide x \ in. thick x 4 in. long, and teach 
blind-nailing with § patent brads. 

Problem 7. — Take prepared pieces of wood | in. thick, and nail up a 
box 4 in. long x 2 in. wide x 1 in. high outside measure, taking care 
that no nails appear in the sides, and that the pieces are smoothly joined. 
Use \ in No. 21 steel wire nails. (See wall-plate for number and 
position of nails.) Mark places for nails right distance from edge of 
board by means of dividers, setting them to half the thickness of stock. 

(Write name legibly on every piece of finished work.) 

Lesson II. — Measurement. 
Problem. — Take a piece 8x |x|; scribe with dividers a line J in. 
from the edge on each face. Lay the rule along this line and mark 
with knife point at every \ in. Repeat on an adjacent side, marking at 
every \ in. Repeat on third side at every \ in and on the fourth side 
at every -^ in. of alternate inches. 

Lesson III. — Try Square. 

Problem 1. — Take a piece 8xl}x| ; measure and mark with fine 
pencil point at every inch. Square around the stick through each point, 
using pencil. Repeat at half inches, using knife, making proper depth 
of line. Repeat at quarter inches. (See wall-plate for method of hold- 
ing 'try square.) 

Problem 2. — Repeat, using bevel and square on alternate sides. 

Problem 3. — Repeat, using bevel on four ddes. 

Lesson IV. — Gauging. 
Problem 1. — Take a piece 8 x 2 x ^\ ; set gauge \ in. and make four 
lines. Continually set gauge J g in. less, making four lines each time 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 193 

till JL in. settino* is reached. Then fill the rest of one side of board with 
lines Jg in. apart, leaving opposite side to write name and number of 
piece. (See wall-plate for manner of holding gauge.) 

Problem 2. — Take a piece 6xlix- t 5 g, and fill with lines T \ in apart, 
as fine as can be made uniform. 

Problem 3. — Take a piece 4x2 x| ; fill edges and ends with lines Jg 
in apart. 

Problem 4. — Take a piece 4 x 2 x T 5 ¥ ; square across on one face § in. 
from each end with knife ; gauge | in. from each edge between knife 
lines ; square again \ in. from ends between gauge lines ; then gauge ^ 
in. from each edge between square lines, and so fill the board, leaving 
\ in. width in centre for name. 

Problem 5. — On reverse side of Problem 4 make diagonals ; gauge 
between them at every f in., and square with knife at intersection of 
diagonals with gauge lines. 

Lesson V. — Saw to Line. 

Problem 1. — Explain difference between slitting and cutting-off saws. 

Problem 2. — Take a piece 4 x 2 x £ and teach to start kerf. 

Problem 3. — Take a piece 8 x 2 x | ; gauge at every \ in. on sides and 
ends; square at every inch on sides and edges. Slit-saw, taking out 
one-half of a gauge line, till the first squared line is reached. Rectify- 
all wrong sawing and proceed downward another inch ; rectify and pro- 
ceed a third inch ; fill both ends of the stick in this manner. 

Problem 4. — Repeat, sawing as far from line as width of kerf. 

Problem 5. — Take a piece 8 x 3} 2 x f ; gauge and square at every \ in., 
and practise as above, with cutting-off saw. 



Lesson VI. — Surface Planing. 

First describe minutely each of the three planes on the bench, having 
every pupil take his plane apart, reassemble it and adjust it. A plane 
is properly adjusted when the middle of its cutting edge passes below 
the plane block so as to shave the wood, while the ends of the cutting 
edge do not reach down far enough to shave. Pupils should do this 
adjusting, but the edge must be put in order by the teacher or by pupils 
in advanced classes, as ability to sharpen a tool cannot easily be acquired 
in advance of the ability to use it. 

From | in. boards of any width saw pieces 8| in. long, and supply 
each member of the class with a piece. From these are to be finished 
boards 8 in. long by 2| in. wide, observing the following order of opera- 
tions : First, rough saw the piece in strips 3 in. wide. Second, rough- 
plane the edges until all the saw marks are removed. Third, clean off 
the sides, using the finishing plane, and removing as little wood as pos- 
sible, thus : Suppose lines to be drawn lengthwise about f in. apart. 
(See Fig. 1.) 



194 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Fig. 1. 



Move the plane first so as to have the middle of the shaving which it 
cuts come from the middle of the first section. (Be sure the plane cuts 
a shaving along the entire length of the board.) Next, plane in like 
manner the second section, then the third, and so continue till the whole 
surface is clean. 

Fourth, true the sides thus : Test a side crosswise, in three places, as 
shown at Fig. 2, viz., near each end, and in the middle, holding the work 



* » • 

■ i i 

! ! ! 

i ; i 



Fig. 2. 

with the straight edge on it, up between the eye and a light window, 
then plane where the test has shown the surface to be too high. Next 
test lengthwise in three places as shown at Fig. 3, viz., near each edge 
and along the middle, and plane where these tests show the surface to 



Fig. 3. 

be too high, being careful in all these planings not to plane such por- 
tions of the surface as the tests show to be already sufficiently low. 
Next test on both diagonals as shown at Fig. 4, and plane off the high 
portions. Finally, repeat the above eight tests, and, if the surface 



Fig. 4. 

proves true, put a pencil mark on the side thus trued. (See Fig. 5.) 
This pencil mark is known as a tried mark, and indicates that the first 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



195 



side is tested and proved true. Plane and test the opposite side in the 
same manner, but do not put a tried mark on it. Mark it with a figure 
2, to indicate that it is finished. 




Fifth, plane the edge next the tried mark, testing it with the straight 
edge lengthwise, and the try square three times, viz., near each end and 
near the middle, squaring from the tried side. Pencil a tried mark also 
on this edge. (See Fig. 6.) 




Fig. G. 



Sixth, set the gauge 2f in. plus — this will be practising Kule First, 
page 191. Plus measurement means setting the gauge to the farther 
side of the graduation line. Gauge from the tried edge on both sides 
of the board — this will be practising Rule Second Rough-plane near 
to the gauge lines — this will be practising Rule Third. Finally, finish 
plane exactly to the lines — this will be practising Rule Fourth. 

Seventh, square around the board about \ in. from one end, using 
knife and try square, squaring in all cases from the tried side and tried 
edge. Saw near to the line, and then, holding the work in the vise, 
plane to the squared lines, using the block plane. 

Eighth, measure from this finished end 8 in. plus (Rule 1), square 
around as before (Rule 2), saw near to the line (Rule 3), and plane to 
tlie line (Rule 4) . 

Lesson VII. — Boring. 

Problem 1. — Take one of the boards planed in the previous lesson, 
gauge from the tried face on both of the adjacent edges T 7 g in. ; square 
around at every f in., squaring from the tried edge ; bore with i in. 
auger bit from intersection of lines on one edge till point of bit meets 
intersection on opposite edge. 

Problem 2. — Saw off one of the boards made in previous lesson 5 in. 
long ; lay out three intersections on each end, and bore lengthwise in a 
similar manner. 

Problem 3. — Repeat with board 8 in. long, boring from each end. 






196 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Lesson, VIII. — Brad-awl. 
Take a board planed in previous lesson, to § in. thickness, gauge and 
square lines \ in. apart on both sides. Awl froni intersections on one 
side to intersections on the other side. 

Lesson IX. — Shove Planing. — Cut to Width. 
Problem 1. — Take a soft, straight-grained pine board, \ in. thick, 
about 4 ft. long by 6 in. wide. If end of board be not clean wood, first 
saw off -i in. or more, to waste. Next saw off a piece 4£- in. long ; hold 
this piece in vise and plane the edge with wooden plane till roughness 
is off, then plane edge square and true by means of shove-plane block, 
using 8 in. Bailey iron plane. Use standard rule to set gauge f in. plus 
(Rule 1). Gauge from the finished edge on both sides of the board 
(Rule 2). Saw near to the line (Rule 3), plane to middle of line, leav- 
ing one side of line visible (Rule 4). Carefully plane out gauge lines 
by the least possible number of full-length shavings. (Never move a 
plane across a board without perceiving that it cuts.) Make twelve 
pieces. Six of these pieces placed side by side should measure 4| in. 

Lesson X — Cut to Length. 

Problem 1. — Take three pieces made in Lesson IX. ; plane each end 
on shove-plane block, using 6 in. Bailey iron block plane. Measure 
from each end 2 in. (Rule 1) ; square across face with knife (Rule 2) ; 
saw near line (Rule 3), and plane to line, leaving half of line visible ; 
then carefully plane out the line (Rule 4). Make six pieces. 

Problem 2. — Trim to an exact common length, observing that said 
common length is just 2 in. In making the above 2 in. measurement, 
mark it plus ; that is, put the knife point not against the centre of 
graduation line, but against the farther side. Then, when lines are 
planed out, the pieces will be just 2 in. long, and when placed end to 
end will measure exactly 12 inches. 

Problem 3. — Make, as above, two pieces, 4£ in. long. 

Problem 4. — Take two pieces of Problem 3, and five pieces of Prob- 
lem 2, and nail up a case of shelves, using f No. 20 wire brads. Make 
similar problems of other dimensions. 

Lesson XL — Examples Involving Practice in All of the Foregoing 

Lessons. 

Problem 1. — Take \ in. board 4| in. long, as in Lesson IX., and make 
two pieces 2 in. wide. 

According to Lesson X., make them 4 in. long. 

Also, make four pieces f in. wide x 4 in. long and four pieces f in. 
wide x 1| in. long. Use f in. No. 20 wire brads, and nail as in Lesson 
I., making two boxes, each 4 in. long x 2 in. wide x 1 in. high, outside 
measure. 

Problem 2. — As above, make a box 5x2|x 1^. 

Problem 3. — Make a box 4* x 2} x 1|. 

Problem 4. — Make a box 4| x 2f x l T 3 g. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 197 

Problem 5. — Make a box 4ix2{x 1 T ^ . 

Ready workmen will finish Problem 5 as soon as backward ones finish 
Problem 2. Let each pupil study out for himself the dimensions of parts 
to each box. 

Lesson XII. — Hand Screw. 

Problem 1. — Exercise in opening and shutting. Set clamp to different 
widths, as 2 in., 3 in., 4 in., 2\ in., etc. Also set it to hold two, three, or 
four pieces of | boards. 

Problem 2. — Make a foot rule. Take \ in. stock ; finish a piece f in. 
wide x 12 in. long ; gauge on one face from one edge, \ in., \ in., § in., 
i in. Lay a standard rule behind it, clamping blocks to bench top at 
each end ; then with knife and try square, make squared lines at every 
inch, back to \ in. gauge line ; at every \ in., back to f gauge line ; at 
every \ in., back to \ gauge line, and at every \ in., back to \ in. gauge 
line. Sharpen hard lead pencil to a goose-bill edge, and blacken all of 
these lines. 

Lesson XIII. — Dividers. 

Problem 1. — Take a board 8 x 3| x \ ; gauge \ in. from one edge on 
each side ; square around near the middle. From intersection of lines 
on one side measure 2 in. each way on the gauge line, and make an 
accurate point with hard pencil. Also measure 3 in. each way and 
every | in. between 2 in. and 3 in. From intersection of lines as a 
centre, describe 9 semicircles passing through points and continuing to 
edge of board. 

Problem 2. — On opposite side of board describe a 3 in. semicircle, 
and on the right side of the squared line lay off angles 30°, 60°. On 
the left side lay off 45°, 22^. 

Lesson XIV. — Square Prism. — Forms Developed From It. 
Problem 1. — From 2 in. plank 17 in. long saw off strips 2 in. wide ; 
cut in two lengths of 8£ in. each. Plane the sawed edges of each with 
the wooden plane. Plane one side of each to a geometrical surface 
with the 8 in. iron plane, observing the directions given in Lesson VI. 
In planing any one surface with either the wooden or iron plane, sup- 
pose the surface to be divided into three equal parts or sections by lines 
running lengthwise, thus : — 



Move the plane first so as to have the middle of the shaving which it 
cuts come from the middle of the front section ; move the plane second 
time so as to have the middle of the shaving come from the middle of 
the rear section ; move it the third time along the middle of the middle 
section. (Be sure that the plane cuts during the entire stroke.) Test 
the planed surface with straight edge to see if the middle section is down 
even with the side sections. If not, take middle sectional shavings till 



198 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

it is. A side is planed to a geometrical surface when it will pass eight 
tests with a straight edge, as mentioned in Lesson VI. A block similar 
to the above needs to hang on a leg of the bench, and be kept as a part 
of its equipment, to test the adjustment of plane when required. Write 
name on this first side when completed. Next plane an adjacent side to 
a geometrical surface in a similar manner, making it square with first 
side by using try square instead of straight edge in making the three 
width tests. The third side is finished by gauging If in. phis from first 
or name side, planing to middle of gauge line, then carefully planing 
gauge line out to leave clear corners, observing all the above directions 
concerning sectional shavings and straight-edge tests. Supply ready 
pupils with work while the entire class are making these two blocks, 
by allowing each one to make as many as he can do well. Great care 
must be used in planing first and second sides, not to remove much 
stock, if the pupil would accomplish the desired object of finishing the 
blocks If in. square. In case of too much removal, make the blocks 
-Jg in. smaller. 

Problem 2. — Block plane ends of above, making them 8 in. long. 
Use for this the 6 in. Bailey iron block plane. First, square around 
about I in. from one end with knife and try square ; next, saw very near 
this line nearly half way through ; turn the block one-quarter of a rev- 
olution away from you and saw as before ; repeat with third side, then 
with fourth side, finishing the cut. If skill has been exercised, very 
little is left to plane. If the sawing has been done far from the line, a 
chisel had better be used before planing. Hold block in vise vertically, 
and plane from every side towards the middle. The corners will be 
split off if the plane be driven entirely across the end. Measure 8 in. 
plus from this finished end, square, saw and plane as before. In doing 
the above recall the four fundamental rules. 

Problem 3. — Take one of the above pieces and lay out an octagon on 
each end. The distance from a corner of the square to a corner of the 
octagon is the semi-diagonal of the square. Plane to these lines, mak- 
ing an octagonal prism. 

Problem 4. — Make an octagonal pyramid 3 in. long on one end of 
octagonal prism, using chisel and plane ; and an octagonal head on the 
opposite end, using chisel. 

Problem 5. — Take another square block from Problem 1 ; make first 
an octagonal prism ; then, by planing its corners, a sixteen-sided prism, 
then a thirty-two-sided prism, and finally a cylinder. 

Problem 6. — Make a cone on one end of the cylinder of Problem o, 
and a sphere on the other, operating as in Problems -A and 5. 

Lesson XV. — Bread Board. 
Supply each pupil with a piece of £ in. white-wood, and have him 
make a bread board 9 in. x 12 in., observing carefully all directions 
given in Lesson VI. Cut off the corners 2 in. on the ends and 3 in. on 
the edges, making the surface eight-sided. Chamfer all corners } in. 
Sand-paper the finished work. Let such pupils as wish to pay the cost 
of the lumber have this board to carry home 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 199 

Lesson XVI. — Bevelled Joints. 
Have each pupil draw a bevelled joint of | in. thickness, 3 in. high, 
5 in. long on the upper side, and 4 in. long on the lower, that is, the 
amount of bevel being 1 in. in the height of joint. Explain thoroughly 
the details of laying out and making the joint, after which each pupil 
should follow them, observing all previous instructions which apply. 

Lesson XVII. — Knife Box. 
As each pupil completes his bevelled joint have him draw and make 
a knife box of f in. white-wood, 2 in. high, 12 in. x 8 in. on the top and 
10 in. x 6 in. on the bottom, with a partition through the middle length- 
wise 3 1 in. high, having a hole for a handle. This box may be stained 
black walnut or cherry and shellacked, or it may be varnished in native 
color. Allow each pupil to have his own work by paying for the 
lumber. 

Lesson XVIII. — Chisel. 

Problem 1. — Make, as in Lesson VL, two boards 8^ in. x 2 in. x | in., 
gauge from one edge of each board f in. on the adjacent side ; measure 
on this edge and place points at every f in. ; square with the knife 
through each of these points across the edge and on both the adjacent 
sides as far as the gauge lines. Cut out each alternate f in. section so 
laid out by sawing nearto the lines and then chiselling exactly to the lines. 

Problem 2. — Make a board 8 in. x 3 T T g in. x \ in. Gauge \ in. from 
one side on both edges and ends. On this side, and on edges and ends 
down as far as to gauge line, lay out the board in \ in. squares. Chisel 
to these lines in such a manner as to form on the side of the board a 
group ot square pyramids whose apices shall be 1 in. apart and whose 
altitudes shall be \ in. 

Lesson XIX. — Gouge. 

Problem 1. — Make a board 8 in. x 3^ in. x \ in. On one side of it 
gauge lines lengthwise at every T 7 g in. With the gouge cut semicircular 
grooves in alternate spaces, using corner of try square to test accuracy 
of semicircle. 

Problem 2. — Repeat Problem 1, squaring lines crosswise at every 

t 7 6 in - 

Lesson XX. — Screw Driver. 

Problem 1. — Make two soft-wood boards 8 in. x 2 in. x | in. On one 
side of one of them square lines one inch from each end ; square three more 
lines 1\ in. apart between these, and gauge a line \ in. from each edge. 

With the - 3 7 2 in. drill bit, bore holes through the board at five of the 
intersections, the location of the holes forming a zigzag line. Place the 
second board underneath the first, insert five \\ in No. 11 screws in the 
bored holes, and turn them down with the screw driver till the heads 
come flush with the surface ot the upper board. 

Problem 2. — Repeat Problem 1, using maple or some hard wood. 
Through the upper board bore B 7 5 m - holes and countersink them. Bore 
g 5 2 in. holes half way through the lower board, and dip the end of each 
screw in tallow before using it. 

The above elementary course gives practice with each class of tools 



200 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



mentioned in the list on page 188, and occupies pupils of the senior 
grammar grade during one year of forty weeks, one lesson of one and 
one-half hours' duration being taken each week. 

High-school Work. 

The class of freshmen organized last September numbers thirteen, six 
of whom are from the scientific and manual course, and seven from the 
Latin course. Problems in joinery made by this class are shown on 
page 201, where they are one-tenth size, except the frames, Nos. 7 and 8, 
and the drawing board, T square and triangles, No. 15. The joints of 
these triangles are secured by means of glue and dowels made from \ 
in. No. 21 wire brads. The drawings from which this plate was photo- 
graphed were made by pupils of the school. 

The problems are all of pine except the triangles, which are of cherry. 
They are numbered and named as follows : No. 1, halved corner joint ; 
No. 2, halved with relish joint ; No. 3, bevelled halved joint ; No. 4, 
dovetailed halved joint ; No. 5, flat mitre joint ; No. 6, mortise and 
tenon joint ; No 7, mitred frame, 8 x 10 ; No. 8, mortised frame, 8 x 10 ; 
No. 9, dowelled joint; No. 10, dado joint; No. 11, drawer front joint; 
No. 12, erect mitre joint; No. 13, mitre and halved joint; No. 14, mitre 
and mortised joint ; No. 15, drawing board, 21 x 28 ; No. 16; 45° tri- 
angle, 6 in. base ; No. 17, 30° and 60° triangle, 5 in. base ; No. 18, T 
square, 2\ in. width of blade and head ; No. 19, straight splice ; No. 20, 
bevelled splice. 

In addition to these joints many of the pupils made each a foundry 
flask, having dovetailed corners, for his own use next year, and a box 
for holding the tools used in knife work in lower grammar grades. 
(See cut below.) 

Turning problems will be found on pages 202-205, inclusive ; carving 
problems on pages 206-210, inclusive ; pattern-making problems on 
pages 213, 214. 



ELEVATION. 
26' 



[ 



DIVIDERS 

M I 1 1 1 1 I I |A 1 I 1 IT 



PENCILS 



RULES 



ii i^rrri mini 



TRY 
SQUARES 



KNIVES 



PLAN. 



pj-m_runj-ijqjiJ^^ 



ELEVATION OF THE STRIPS A AND B. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



201 



Joinery Problems. 



■•-•-- 




1 



o 




nr. 

LXD0 



\ 






....... 


1 n 


5 


Q L 




cr: 


..., 




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'Rl IS I 



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13 



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14 




15 







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10 


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17 



Scale, Jg in. to 1 in. for all ex- 
cept 7, 8 and 15, for which see page 
200. 



202 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Turning Problems. 
Series First. — Elementary Oentre Work. 

Problem 1. 



Problem 2. 





^ 








<_y 













Problem 3. 



Problem 4. 



Problem 5. 

wmmrn 



Problem 6. 



Problem 7. 



mm 






Problem 8. 




L/ 
Problem 0. 



DD 



Problem 1. Cylinder. 



Problem 2. Hollows. 



Problem 3. Rounded hol- 
lows. 



Problem 4. Square grooves. 



Problem 5. V grooves. 



Problem 6. Beads. 



Problem 7. Beads, fillets 
and hollows. 



Problem 8. Ovolos and 
cavettos. 



Problem 9. Hollow cylinder 
J on arbor. 



Problem 10. 




Problem 10. Stool leg, with 
tenon on one end to fit bored 
hole. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



203 



Series Second. — Templet Forms, 



Problem 1. 

Sphere. 

Problem 2. 

Ellipsoid. 

Problem 3. 

Ovoid. 



Problem -4. 



Conoid. 



Problem 5. 



Problem 6. 



Vase. 



Acorn. 



Problem 7. 



Masher. 




Series Third. — Polished Forms. 



Problem 1. 

Ball bat. 







Problem 2. 



Billy. 



Problem 3. 

Shank chisel 
handle. 

Problem 4. 

Shank chisel 
handle. 

Problem 5. 

Shank chisel 
handle. 

Problem 6. 

Socket chisel 
handle. 

Problem 7. 

Screw-driver 
handle. 

Problem 8. 

Dumb bell. 



c 



c 



TUIDIDIO 




204 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Series Fourth. — Face Plate Work. 



ifefJtl y " y ^ 



Problem 1. Moulding. 



I ^ Problem 2. Octagonal ring. 

7] Problem 3. Round ring. 



^ 



*U 




Problem 4. Cone pulley. 



Problem 5. Polished hard-wood rosette. 



a l ^w^AUW^j 



7 


«5^£2^^^gl^3 



Problem 6. Napkin ring. 



Problem 7. Match barrel 



G 



Series Fifth. — Zcm# JFbr&. 

r . y Problem 1. Plain 

chair round. 

^ ^_ . .^^^ Problem 2. Orna- 

C===0CLJ1J^^ mental chair 
3 round. 

Problem 3. Chair 
leg. 






INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



205 



Series Sixth. — Assembled Work. 



Problem 1. 



Problem 2. 



Mallet. 




Rolling pin. <1^^3 - 



ci^ZZS> 



Problem 3. 

Light stand. 
The top of this stand 
is octagonal ' in form. 
There are four legs and 
four braces, but only 
two of each are shown, 
for clearness. They are 
secured in place by 
means of screws. 




The above prints of turning problems are all one-quarter size, except 
series fifth and sixth, which are one-eighth size. 



206 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Carving Problems. 

Incised Work. 
Against each problem is a list of the tools used in earring it. 



The 



size and number correspond with J. B. Addis' catalogue. The boards 
are prepared by machinery, and are of \ in. pine, except Problem 11, 
which is | in., and which is prepared by pupils. The prints are from 
drawings made by pupils, and are one-quarter size. 





n 


~nrnninnnr~ 


Hill! 

! | 







Problem 1. 

Veiner, | in., No. 11. 




Problem 2. 
Veiner, f in., No. 11, 



Problem 3. 
Veiner, | in., No. 11. 



Problems 4 and 6. 
Veiner, ^ in., Xo. 11. 
Gouge, T 3 g in, No. 9. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



207 



Problems 5 and 7. 
Veiner, s ^ in., No. 11. 
Gouge, y 3 g in., No. 9. 



Problem 8. 

Veiner, | in., No. 11. 
Gouge, T 3 g in., No. 9. 



Problem 9. 
Veiner, 3 3 5 in., No. 11. 



Problem 10. 

Veiner, | in., No. 11. 



Problem 11. 
Parting tool, 
1 in., No. 39. 











w 

xK 













208 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 








13 






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00 


^L 


7K 


00 


•rf^> 


^ 


0^ 






15 





















Problem 12. 
Veiner, r 3 
Parting 
No. 39 



32 in ' 5 N °. 11. 

tool, 4 in.. 



Problem 13. 
Veiner, ^ in., No. 11. 
Flat gouge, i in., No. 7. 



Problem 14. 
Veiner, B 3 2 in., No. 11. 
Gouge, ^g in., No. 9. 
Gouge, f in., No. 9. 
Flatgouge,|in.,No. 4. 
Flat gouge, fin., No. 5. 
Flat gouge, \ in., No. 7. 



Problem 15. 
Veiner, -^ in., No. 11. 
Gouge, A in., No. 9. 



Problems 1 to 4, on the following page, are executed on the four sides 
of a hard-wood block 2\ in. square, and require the following tools : 
i in. No. 1, \ in. No. 1, f in. No. 2, f in. No. 5, \ in. No. 7, \ in. stamp. 

Problems 5 to 8 are executed on \ in. pine. Problems 9, 10 and 11 
constitute one exercise, portions of the class working on each. They 
are on •§ in. cherry. Problem 12 is on \ in. bay wood. 

To execute each of these requires from one-half to all of the tools. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



209 



Belief Work. 



YvrwmYrYYYrmrrwYm^ 

s A AAAAAAAAA AA/ 




2 




I W 
















1 ' 

i 


















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9 




Scale for this page, £ in. to 1 in. 






210 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 




One-half size. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 211 

Pattern-Making. 

Solid Blocks. 
Problem 1. — The cuts on page 213 give three views of a planed iron 
block 4 in. x 3 in. x f in., for which block three patterns are made ; the 
first is to be moulded with a side uppermost, the second with an edge 
uppermost and the third with an end uppermost, shrinkage, draft and 
finish being allowed for in each case. Problem 2 is two views of a 
block 3 in. long x 1| in. square, of which three patterns are made, to be 
moulded first with a side uppermost, second with a corner uppermost, 
third with an end uppermost, shrinkage, draft and finish being allowed 
for, as in Problem 1. Problem, 3 is two views of a cylinder, for which 
two patterns are made (by planing, not by turning) , one being moulded 
sidewise and one endwise. Problem 4 is three views of a box 8 in. x 
4 in. x 2\ in., having f in. thickness of stock. An important item of 
instruction which it furnishes is the shaping of its end pieces. Leather 
corners are also introduced with this problem. 

Green Sand Cores. 
Problem 5 is two vieAvs of a flat pattern 10 in. x 3 in. x | in., through 
which three holes are cut, square, round and hexagonal, respectivelyc 

Dried Sand Cores. 

Problem 7 is two views of a flat casting 5 in. x 3 in. x | in., cored so 
as to leave T 3 g in. thickness of stock. 

Problem 8 is two views of a hollow square prism, of which two 
patterns are made, drawing cornerwise and endwise, respectively. 
Problem 9 is two views of a hollow cylinder 3 in. by 1\ in., of which two 
turned patterns are made, drawing sidewise and endwise, respectively. 

Problem 10 is three views, A, B, C, of a pattern having depressed 
core prints. It is required to mould a block 4 in. x 3 in. x If in., with 
an edge uppermost, and a core passing horizontally through the centre 
of the block. The dotted lines show where the cored hole will be. 

Problem 11 is three views, D, E, F, of a pattern having a depressed 
core passing at an angle through the middle of a block 4 in. x 3 in. x 
If in. The dotted lines show where the cored hole will be. The 
invisible corners of the core prints are not represented on D. 

Bosses. 

Problem 6 is a pattern similar to Problem 5, but having bosses instead 
of holes. 

Problem 12 is three views of a block, 4 in. x 3 in. x If in., having a 
depressed boss on each side. Each boss is connected to the main pattern 
by a dovetail, and is to be drawn from the mould after the main pattern 
is drawn. 

Divided and Dowelled Patterns. 

Problem 13 is a pattern of a flat block, 4 in. 
in the middle and dowelled. 



212 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Problem 14 is a turned pattern of a hollow cylinder, 3 in. x 1* in., 
divided and dowelled. 

Construction Patterns. 

Problem 15 is three views of a pipe, T pattern, one-fifth size. 

Problem 16 is one view of a pipe, elbow pattern, one-fifth size, show- 
ing the extra length of core prints necessary to balance. 

Problem 17 is a hitching-post head pattern, one-tenth size, showing 
extra length of core prints necessary to balance. 

Problem 18 is a solid pulley pattern, one-fifth size, the spokes being 
whittled with a knife after turning. 

Problem 19 is two orthographic views and one isometric view of a 
steam cylinder, one-fifth size, a project requiring much time and patience 
to execute. 

A core box was made as needed with each of the above pattern prob- 
lems, and at the close of the series each member of the class moulded 
his own pattern and obtained a plaster of Paris casting from it. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



213 



Elementary Patterns. 




O 




' 1 A 





B 











10 



tl 





_s 


_D 



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/ 



ii 




/ F / 




1 2 5 $ S 



□ O O 



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D O O 



u 

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12 



13 



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JZL 



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1£ 



Scale of inches, one-fifth size 
for all problems on this page 
except 5 and 6, which are one- 
tenth size. (See page 211.) 



214 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Construction Patterns. 



o 





1_L 






18 




Scale of inches, one-nfth size for all of the problems on this page 
except 17, which is one-tenth size. (See page 212.) 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 215 



Appendix J. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION AND MANUAL TRAINING IN NEW 

JERSEY.* 

By Mr. C. E. MELENEY, Superintendent of Public Schools, Somerville. 



In 1881 the Legislature of New Jersey passed a bill guarantee- 
ing that the State would duplicate, out of the funds in the State 
treasury, any amount of money, between $3,000 and $5,000, that 
might be raised in any locality in the State, either by subscription 
or by appropriation, for the purpose of establishing a school or 
schools for industrial education ; and, after such school or schools 
have been established, that there should be appropriated annually 
a sum equal to. that raised each year by the locality. 

The first city to profit by this legislation was Newark, the 
metropolis of the State, one of the great manufacturing cities of 
the country. A fund of $5,000 was raised by the citizens, who 
guaranteed to duplicate their subscription for five years. The 
board of trustees provided for in the law was organized as fol- 
lows : the governor, who is ex officio the president of the board, 
two members appointed by the subscribers, two appointed by the 
city board of education and two by the city council. These trus- 
tees receive no compensation for their services, but any expenses 
incurred by them in the discharge of their duties is paid upon the 
approval of the governor. 

In 1890 an act making the trustees a corporate body was passed 
by the Legislature. The act of 1881 read as follows : — 

Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New 
Jersey, that whenever any board of education, school committee or other 
like body, of any city, town or township in this State, shall certify to the 
governor that a sum of money, not less than $3,000, has been contributed 
by voluntary subscriptions of citizens or otherwise, as hereinafter author- 
ized, for the establishment in any such city, town or township, of any 
school or schools for industrial education, it shall be the duty of said 

* Report of testimony given before the Commission. 



216 MANUAL TRAININGS AND 

governor to cause to be drawn, by warrant of the comptroller, approved 
by himself, out of any moneys in the State treasury not otherwise appro- 
priated, an amount equal to that contributed by the particular locality as 
aforesaid for the said object ; and when any such school or schools shall 
have been established in any locality as aforesaid, there shall be annually 
contributed by the State in manner aforesaid, for the maintenance and 
support thereof, a sum of money equal to that contributed each year, in 
said locality, for such purpose : provided, however, that the moneys con- 
tributed by the State as aforesaid to any locality shall not exceed in any 
one year the sum of $5,000. 

With a fund of $10,000 the Newark Technical School was 
opened in 1885, as an evening school, the persons whom it was 
intended to benefit being of the working classes, engaged during 
the day in the various manufacturing industries of the city. 

As stated in the catalogue, " The object of the Newark Tech- 
nical School is the advancement of the manufacturing interests of 
the city, and its course is arranged with special reference to the 
intellectual wants and improvements of the working classes ; " and, 
in order that as many pupils as possible from the working classes 
could attend the school, it was instituted in the evening. 

As this school is pre-eminently an industrial school, the course 
of study is arranged accordingly. The preparatory class includes 
arithmetic, writing and composition. First year, algebra, physics, 
descriptive chemistry, free-hand drawing. Second year, geometry, 
free-hand drawing, descriptive chemistry finished, lectures on agri- 
culture and technical chemistry, the latter referring to the appli- 
cation of chemistry in manufacturing industries, and including 
among others the following subjects : soap, illuminating gas, coal 
tar and its derivatives, sugars, photography, bleaching, dyes, dye- 
ing and tissue printing. Third year, algebra completed, geometry 
completed, theory of cutting tools, mechanical or architectural 
drawing, physics and its divisions. Fourth year, trigonometry, 
mechanics, technical chemistry, descriptive geometry, mechanical 
or architectural drawing, steam engineering, a course of ten lect- 
ures on the physical properties of steam, steam generators, steam 
motors and the indicator. 

Owing to the limited resources, they have no shop work, but 
the students are usually employed in shops during the daytime, 
and the director of the school frequently visits the shops where 
the students are employed. 

The institution is very well supplied with models and patterns 
for drawing, etc., and it is intended that the various stages of 
manufacture shall be illustrated, as far as possible, from the raw 
material to the finished article, specimens of which are supplied 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 217 

for the school cabinets. The work in chemistry consists of lect- 
ures and experiments, but without the laboratory work by the 
pupils. 

Sessions are held from 7 to 9.30, three evenings each week. 

For five years the subscribers contributed according to their 
agreement, thus securing in all $50,000 for the school. It is now 
supported by an annual appropriation by the city of $5,000, to 
which is added each year an equivalent sum from the State. Each 
year a portion of this amount is set aside as a permanent building- 
fund, the intention being to raise a sufficient sum to erect a build- 
ing, to be located upon a lot already purchased. 

"As soon as the new building is ready the trustees expect to 
announce the opening of a day school with particular reference to 
the artistic side of manufacturing. Instruction at first will be 
given in drawing, modelling in clay, designing, engraving and 
chasing on metals, and repousse work. The course of study will 
probably extend over two years, and applicants who are fourteen 
years of age or older will be received without reference to place of 
residence." 

The Newark Technical School is the only institution operating 
under the law of 1881. Nevertheless, a great interest was mani- 
fested in the subject of manual training by the leading educators 
of the State, and some cities began to consider the adoption of 
some of its features in the public schools. The most nocable work 
of this kind was inaugurated in Montclair under the direction of 
Eandall Spaulding, superintendent of schools, who says, in a 
letter of recent elate : — 

In 1881 the town of Montclair started a manual training movement, on 
quite a definite basis and without any aid from the State. A special 
committee was appointed, which looked up the subject of manual train- 
ing ; an instructor was appointed to teach pupils from the grammar 
schools, from twelve to fourteen years of age. A course of manual 
training was laid out, work was begun on Oct. 1, 1882, and the seventh 
and eighth grade grammar scholars, averaging twelve and one-half 
years, were selected. As now arranged, instruction is given to both 
boys and girls of the first-year grammar school in drawing and con- 
struction of geometric forms and in clay modelling, to the second-year 
boys in carpentry, and to the third-year boys in wood carving. While 
the boys are in the workshop the girls receive from their regular teach- 
ers instruction in needle-work, embroidery and plain sewing. They 
design and draw patterns and then transfer them to the goods, then they 
work out the patterns with colored wools and silk. The course of sew- 
ing occupies three years, including all the stitches in the making and 
repairing of garments. In the higher grade more advanced lessons 
and more difficult work in garment making are given. After plain sew- 



218 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

ing conies ornamental work to some extent, the Kensington stitch being 
chiefly used. The pupils invent designs sometimes, and select patterns 
which are executed in scarfs for tables, splashers, bureau covers, etc. 
The time devoted to the work has been one hour twice a week for 
three years. 

The aim of the industrial work is to discipline the mind through the 
hand and the eye. The shop work is but one part of the manual train- 
ing begun in the lowest grade and continued in the high ; there the 
pupils are given laboratory work in physics and chemistry, and en- 
couraged to make their own apparatus. The time devoted to the work 
has been one hour twice a week in school hours. 

This school accommodates all the grammar and high school 
pupils in the town, and is located in two buildings, which are 
about to give way for a new, fine building now being erected upon 
the plans of the well-known Boston architects, Loring & Phipps. 

During my residence in New Jersey it was my privilege to be 
quite intimate with Mr. Spaulding and to frequently visit his 
school, so that 1 know the history and progress of the work from 
the outset ; but since my return to Massachusetts I have not kept 
myself informed of the advancement made in that State, and -have 
been obliged to correspond with my friends there to enable me to 
prepare for this interview. I shall have occasion to submit to you 
statements from superintendents of cities and from the State Board 
of Education. Upon the subject of equipment, Mr. Spaulding 
says : — 

1. Amount raised annually by taxation for manual training is $1,000. 

2. Amount received annually from the State for manual training is 
$1,000. 

3. Amount spent in year ending June 1, 1890, $1,607 ; in year ending 
June 1, 1891, $1,550. 

4. Nothing sold, and no receipts. 

5. Present equipment as follows : Twenty-five sets of carpenters' 
tools, at $25 a set, $250 ; thirty-five sets of wood-carving tools, at $3.50 
a set, $122.50 ; twelve benches, at $19.25 each, $231 ; machinery, engine, 
lattres, vises, etc., $2,000 ; plumbing for engine, $40 ; building, $1,000 ; 
total, $3,643.50. 

The ninth-grade boys have cabinet work, eighth-grade boys have 
wood carving, ninth-grade boys have machine and vise work ; ninth- 
grade girls have wood carving. All pupils spend two hours per week 
in manual training, — that is, in the above-mentioned grades. 

The above estimate does not include the cooking department, nor the 
advanced clay modelling. 

I have given you an account of all that was done in the State 
under the act of 1881, viz., the Newark Technical School. I 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 219 

have also given a brief account of the work in Montclair, which 
was begun without State aid, but which has continued and de- 
veloped under the second act of legislation, which I shall now 
describe. 

The first law was enacted to stimulate industrial education, 
before educators and legislators comprehended the educational 
value of manual occupation as a feature of a system of instruction . 

The establishment of the Industrial Educational Association in 
New York and the founding of the Manual Training School at 
No. 9 University Place, which has since developed into the Col- 
lege for the Training of Teachers, had a wide influence in that 
part of the country. Very soon after this association got to work 
a similar one was organized in Hoboken, known as the New Jersey 
Industrial Educational Association. Leading superintendents and 
teachers in the State began to investigate and discuss the subject 
in State and county association meetings. An impetus was given 
to the work at the meeting of the State Teachers' Association at 
Trenton, where an exhibition of all kinds of school work was dis- 
played, in which drawing, manual training, kindergarten work and 
kindred occupations were marked features. 

Inasmuch as the State had shown a disposition to foster indus- 
trial education, which had resulted only in the establishment of 
one technical school, the leading schoolmen of the State influenced 
the Legislature to enact a law designed to extend State aid to all 
localities interested in organizing manual training in the common 
schools. By an act approved April, 1887, it was provided that, 
""Whenever, in any school district in this State, there shall have 
been raised by special school tax or by subscription, or both, a 
sum of money not less than one thousand dollars for the establish- 
ment in such district of a school or schools for industrial educa- 
tion, or for the purpose of adding industrial education to the 
course of study now pursued in the school or schools of said dis- 
trict, there shall be appropriated by the State, out of the income 
of the school fund, an amount equal to that appropriated by the 
district as aforesaid," etc. In 1888 this law was amended, and 
the amount to be raised by the district in order to entitle it to an 
appropriation from the State was reduced to five hundred dollars. 
This amendment has served to make it possible for some of the 
smaller and poorer districts to avail themselves of the benefits of 
the law. Already a number of school districts in the State have 
taken advantage of these laws, and others contemplate doing so. 
Montclair, Paterson, Vineland, Morristown, Orange, Elizabeth 
and other places have already complied with the provisions of the 
law, and have received an appropriation from the State school 



220 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

fund in aid of manual training. It is now taught in those districts 
as a part of the public school curriculum. That it is abundantly 
successful cannot be questioned, for the testimony to its success is 
unanimous on the part of the teachers and school officers who have 
studied the principles on which it is based, and watched its results. 

The city of Paterson was one of the first to take advantage of 
the new law. In the fall of 1887 the subject of manual training 
was brought to the attention of the board of trade and to the citi- 
zens at public meetings, and a joint committee was appointed, 
which raised the sum of $2,000 by subscriptions, thus insuring an 
additional $2,000 from the State. A joint committee of the sub- 
scribers and the board of education established a manual training 
school for wood-work, open to boys of the high school and the 
two upper grammar grades. In addition to this, a teacher of 
mechanical drawing was appointed for the high school, a director 
of drawing for the whole city ; and a part of the funds was appro- 
priated for drawing materials and kindergarten supplies, which 
had previously been taken from the general school appropriation. 
This was a significant fact, and its approval by State authority 
was a recognition of drawing and kindergarten as integral parts 
of a system of manual or industrial education. To confirm this 
principle, the law of 1888, above quoted, was passed. 

I am informed that each year since my leaving Paterson, in 
1888, the city has appropriated $1,000 in addition to the usual 
school funds, and that the State has contributed a like sum. This 
amount has been used in the payment of salaries, the original fund 
having been sufficient to meet the running expenses of the depart- 
ment. Nothing has been added to the original plan. 

I have been informed by the State board of education, in a 
letter from which I quote, that in the fiscal year ending Oct. 1, 
1891, the sum of $11,454.66 was raised in various localities in the 
State for the purpose of introducing manual training instruction 
in the common schools. An equal sum was paid to these localities 
by the State. The several localities and the sum raised by each 
for this purpose are as follows : West Hoboken raised $500 ; town 
of Union, $d^.66 ; South Orange, $1,000; District Number 5, 
Essex County, $500; Garfield, $500; Vineland, $1,000; Pater- 
son, $2,000; Hoboken, $2,000; Montclair, $1,000; Orange, 
$1,900; Morristown, $500 ; total, $11,454.66. 

During the present year a largely increased draft will be made 
upon the State school fund for manual training instruction. Not 
only have the cities of Camden, Elizabeth and Atlantic City intro- 
duced manual training, but fifteen rural districts have done the 
same thins;. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 221 

Inasmuch as any school, rural or urban, must raise not less than 
$500 in order to receive any State aid at all, you will see that not 
less than $20,000 will be raised in the State of New Jersey during 
the present year for manual training, and an equal sum will be 
drawn from the State school fund. 

Both of the institutions under the control of the State board of 
education have manual training included in the curriculum. In 
the School for Deaf Mutes manual training is taught largely for 
its value as a basis for technical instruction later ; the reasons for 
this are obvious. In the Normal School, however, manual train- 
ing is taught for its educational value alone. Both form study and 
drawing and mechanic arts constitute independent departments of 
instruction, and a professor is assigned to each. There is no 
standing committee of the State board of education on manual 
training, but all matters relating to it are referred to the com- 
mittee on education, which has charge of all the details of school 
administration. You will therefore see that, while there has been 
no legislation to enforce manual training in the public schools, the 
method taken to encourage it has been remarkably successful. 

A letter from the superintendent of schools in Orange will speak 
for the work in that city, and is as follows : — 

We raised by- special tax in our city, in 1890, for the year 1890-91, 
$1,800, and received as much more from the State. The sum raised by 
any town or city by special tax, for manual training, in any amount 
from $500 to $5,000, is duplicated by the State. Last year we raised 
$1,900, and received as much more from the State. The amount ex- 
pended in 1890-91 was $3,418.48. The fiscal year is just closing for 
1891-92, and I have not the figures before me ; but the amount spent for 
manual training is a little more than that of the preceding year. We 
had one additional teacher during the past year. The sum expended 
pays the salaries of three special teachers. Two of these are ladies, 
and give their whole time to the work. The instructor in carpentry 
teaches two days in the week. The expenditures besides are for rent 
of six rooms, steam and gas, material for the parqueterie, sewing, clay 
work, drawing books and pencils, carpentry, cooking, and new tools. 
All grades in all the schools have the training in some form. Drawing 
is in all the classes, from lowest primary to the last year in the high 
school. The weaving and parqueterie and clay are also in the primary 
grades. Sewing begins in the upper primary and extends through the 
grammar course. Wood-work, begun by second grade of grammar, is 
given to the third and fourth grammar, and all the high-school boys. 
Cooking is taught to the high-school girls of first and second years. 
The time of lessons at the shop is from forty-five minutes in younger 
grades to one hour in the older, one lesson weekly. The cost of our 
plant was $3,008.36. After three years' use, it is nearly as good as new. 



222 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Extracts from a report of a special committee on manual train- 
ing of the New Jersey board of education may be of interest : — 

We would especially emphasize the necessity of recognizing the great 
distinction which exists between manual training, as the term is used by 
educators, and trade teaching. Manual training is not trade teaching, 
but is as purely educational in aim and method as is the instruction in 
the older elementary branches by the side of which it is rapidly taking 
its place. By manual training, when properly used, is meant the train- 
ing of the pupil's powers of expressing thought by delineation or draw- 
ing, and by construction or making. In sound educational practice the 
pupil will always be taught to connect words and names with the proc- 
esses and things which they designate and symbolize. Manual train- 
ing recognizes this principle, and gives the pupil an opportunity to learn 
to express his thought in terms of things and objects themselves as well 
as in words, and it also provides a training for his judgment and execu- 
tive faculty. The schools are at present training the memory and the 
power to reason, and — in an increasing measure — the fundamental 
power of sense-perception. Until they include manual training in their 
curriculum, however, they will continue to ignore those two mental 
powers whose co-operation is so important to practical life, — the judg- 
ment and the executive faculty. 

We find that the term " industrial education " is used in a variety of 
senses, but more properly to designate an education in which manual 
training is incorporated. There are serious objections to the use of the 
word " industrial " in this connection at all. These arise in part from 
the confusion which exists in the popular mind between it and the word 
" technical," and in part from the fact that it is already applied to re- 
form schools, to trade schools and to charitable institutions of various 
kinds. When it is used to designate an education which includes manual 
training, it signifies merely that the industries of the country are drawn 
upon for subject matter with which to train the pupil's power of judg- 
ment and his executive faculty, and to give him that development of his 
active powers by bringing him into contact with things, which will in- 
crease the value of his school training for the practical purposes of life, 
Even when used in this sense, the term " industrial education " is an 
indefinite and misleading one, and its use should be avoided. 

It seems to us desirable also that the State board of education should 
lay down certain definite rules by which it will be guided in the future 
in approving or disapproving courses of study in manual training which 
come before it in accordance with the provisions of chapter 38, Laws of 
1888, section 1. In our opinion, this approval should be withheld when- 
ever drawing and form study is not adequately represented in the pro- 
posed course of study. It should also be withheld unless drawing and 
form study is supplemented by constructive work of some sort or grade. 
This constructive work might be represented by kindergarten or by 
clay work, wood-working, sewing or cooking. By establishing such a 
regulation as is here recommended, the intent of the law will be most 
efficiently carried out, and the interests of the school be best served. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 223 

In reply to questions put by the members of the Commission, 
Mr. Meleney said : — 

I assumed the office of superintendent of schools in Paterson, 
N. J., in 1883. The kindergarten we established during 1885-87. 
There was no special appropriation for kindergarten, the teachers' 
salaries and the expense of material coming out of the general 
appropriation. It was not recognized as a separate department, 
but as an essential feature of the primary schools. In my judg- 
ment, there should be no distinction of grades and no recognition 
of the kindergarten as a department, but it should constitute" a 
grade or grades of the primary school. To young ladies from the 
city normal training school, and other primary teachers who seem 
to be naturally fitted, we give instruction in the kindergarten sys- 
tem, by a trained expert, to fit them for this work. In addition 
to that, all the primary teachers in the city we instructed in the 
gifts, occupations and games, so far as they could be used in the 
primary classes. This instruction was welcomed by the teachers. 
I do not think that any other city in the State has established 
kindergartens. 

" Is drawing generally taught in the New Jersey cities and 
towns?" Drawing . has been introduced to some extent. In 
Paterson we were unable to do anything until the manual training 
fund was established. Newark, Elizabeth, Long Branch and 
Montclair, and I think Trenton, had done very well, particularly 
Newark under the direction of Miss Fawcett. Recently Jersey 
City has made some progress under Mr. Thompson. 

" Was there opposition to manual training in Paterson? " No. 
The movement became a popular one. The board of trade cham- 
pioned it, and the public meeting at which the matter was brought 
to the attention of the people was a very large and enthusiastic 
one. The following year the city government made a special 
appropriation for it. 

"Manual training for girls?" I do not know of anything in 
the line of manual training for girls, except sewing and cooking, 
in Orange and Montclair. In Paterson we introduced sewing into 
a few schools in 1887, and in the spring of 1888 the board of edu- 
cation formally adopted a system of sewing, and notice was sent 
to all the schools that teachers must be prepared to take up sewing 
as a part of the school instruction for girls in September following. 

" Do you think that manual training interferes with the progress 
of other studies ? " No, I do not. After considerable experience 
and very careful observation, I believe that manual training is a 
stimulus to the progress of the school in other directions. It adds 
interest to school, stimulates observation and thought, and fur- 
nishes another mode of expression. 



224 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix K. 



MANUAL TRAINING IN LONDON.* 



At a meeting of the commission, Nov. 5, 1891, two teachers of 
manual training who were on a visit in Boston, Miss Nystrom 
of Sweden and Miss Chapman of London, were present by invi- 
tation and gave evidence in substance as follows : — 

We are teachers of sloyd or hand-craft in London. We train teachers 
for this branch of school work ; and during the last two years, in an 
institute of our own, we have tried our ideas and methods on large 
classes of children from neighboring high, middle and elementary 
schools 

The form of sloyd we have observed here in America represents only 
a very small part of the Swedish system. When we speak of sloyd, we 
mean everything that can be done in schools by hand-work. There is 
nothing really fixed about the system. If you travel over Sweden you 
find in different localities the same j^rinciples, but different methods and 
purposes to suit varying local needs. In Sweden there are from four- 
teen hundred to fifteen hundred schools in which the system is carried 
on. The population of London is very nearly the same as that of all 
Sweden. Therefore, when we say that we have the system carried on 
in fourteen hundred or fifteen hundred schools in London, it is equal to 
the amount of work done in Sweden at the present time. 

The main difference between the Danish and the Russian systems of 
sloyd on the one hand and the Swedish sloyd on the other is that in the 
latter we make complete and useful things, while in the two former we 
work exercises only, and pay little or no regard to the usefulness of the 
articles made. The Russian and Danish systems are a little nearer the 
trade-school idea than is the Swedish. We do not see why the two 
systems should not be amalgamated. 

Our experience with the Swedish system demonstrates, we believe, 
that it is not very wise to require children to make a finished useful 
object every time without any practising exercises. We have been con- 
tinually occupied with this question of making finished objects ; and our 



* Report of the remarks made before the Commission by Miss Nystrom of Sweden 
and Miss Chapman of London on the teaching of sloyd. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 225 

observation has been that if a child is allowed to begin and make com- 
plete articles immediately, without some previous practice, he camiot 
be expected to produce very good work. This has been the stumbling 
block in the Swedish system. 

Another defect in the Swedish system is the lack of mechanical draw- 
ing. In our school in London we carry on our wood-work with draw- 
ing. We have very simple and primitive drawings on the wood. The 
children draw forms on their blocks, and then work them out. In Stock- 
holm drawing has been tried in only a few schools. Mr Salomon, the 
director at Naas, set his face from the beginning against drawing, con- 
sidering it too difficult, and preferring to work from the model or pattern 
directly. For instance, in working to curved lines, as in a wooden 
spoon, the lines are soon cut away, and the worker is left to his eye and 
his model. 

Being asked why the Swedes were so very particular about having 
every article they undertook completed, and why they rejected all mere 
exercises in their sloyd instruction, Miss Nystrom stated that in her 
opinion it was owing to their previous history as a people. In Sweden 
for hundreds of years they had had handy men making and perfecting 
things. During the long winter evenings they were making agricult- 
ural implements and doing industrial work. They did not have so 
much machinery nor so many technological schools as in other coun- 
tries, but gave more time to hand-work than other people were able or 
willing to give. Hence it was a national habit to make useful things by 
hand- work. 

The school at Naas in Sweden is a training school for teachers. There 
are smaller schools of the same kind scattered all over Sweden. These 
have been started by jSTaas graduates, and of course propagate the Naa's 
methods of teaching. Mr. Salomon, the director of the Naas training 
school, prefers regular experienced teachers for his pupils, but in fact 
welcomes everybody who comes to learn, and grants certificates to all 
who do the work well. He has no permanent corps of teachers, but is 
himself permanent, and does certain parts of the teaching, particularly 
the lecturing on the principles of sloyd. There is really no instruction 
in drawing. If pupils like to use drawing, well ; if not, well, also. The 
school is supported by Mr. Salomon's uncle, who is a wealthy man. It 
is resorted to every summer by teachers from all over Sweden and from 
many foreign lands. 

When we started on our sloyd work in London, our efforts were 
directed to training classes of teachers, who gave up their summer holi- 
days for the purpose. We soon found that the Swedish methods of work 
would require alteration to suit them to English needs and character. 
The models, too, did not interest the children. We have therefore made 
many changes, gradually feeling our way, studying very carefully all 
systems, observing particularly what has been done by our London 
school board, and endeavoring to gather good ideas from all sources. 
We have been much cheered by the amount of interest excited, espe- 
cially among teachers, who in many instances at first were our most 
bitter opponents, but who afterwards expressed their warmest sympathy. 



226 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The children were interested from the first, and their interest has con- 
tinued unabated. 

As to age, our children range from ten to fourteen. We have not 
admitted any younger than ten. We hope, however, to work out an 
elementary series of wood- working exercises for younger children, and 
then we shall admit younger pupils than we do now. 

The boys sent to us are generally picked boys from the board schools. 
During their absence from their regular classes their classmates go on 
with the regular school work. The boys are picked out b}^ the masters, 
who usually send the boys that can best be spared, on account of their 
high standing. Occasionally they send boys who can best be spared on 
account of roguishness ; and these we have fonud to be our best workers. 

The length of our course we think ought to be three or four years, 
two hours a week from September to June ; but our own school has not 
been quite two years in operation. 

Regarding our manner of work, we begin with the knife and saw, 
which should be the first tools. We have class exercises from the 
beginning. Taking the saw, we explain its construction, answer all 
their questions, show them the right position to take in using it, and 
then let them practise on a piece of wood. Afterward each boy receives 
a piece of wood, and all taking the right position saw in time, — or try 
to. We use the curved motion in sawing, to avoid contracting the chest. 
We are exceedingly anxious to make use of the gymnastic exercises 
which we get from Copenhagen. It is very important that classes be 
started in the habit of standing properly. As every new tool brings 
into exercise a new set of muscles and requires new attitudes, only a 
very few tools can be introduced the first few weeks, if proper attention 
is paid to the attitudes. In the sawing, for example, the boys, having 
placed their boards in position and having taken the right attitudes, all 
saw first with the right hand, all in time ; then, changing attitude and 
taking the saw in the left hand, again saw all in time. Thus every part 
of the body gets proper exercise. Working together in this way with 
a certain amount of competition, they attain much more precision. It 
is a sort of military drill. There is no idleness ; everything is done 
quickly ; and we expect our boys to be at their best all the time they 
are at work. They work always under directions, and are never allowed 
to take tools without permission. 

With the knife we give a long piece of wood, and allow the boys to 
ask whatever questions they wish. They then practise in cutting, acquir- 
ing a good long cutting stroke ; and we tell them to make whatever they 
wish. When we think they can cut well, we tell them what to do. We 
show them a model, and say we want one like it, so long and so wide. 
They have little memorandum books in which they note down the meas- 
urements. We have no " working drawings. 1 ' Of course I can go to 
the black-board and make a rapid sketch of the object for them, but 
there is no need of drawing any plans or dimensions, — that comes later 
on. The first thing they make is a little towel horse. We allow them 
to cut the measurements on wood, but they do not go farther than they 
are told. If we find the majority of the class have finished, we take the 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 227 

whole class farther along, letting those who are behind remember what 
they can, and get further instruction later. 

The age at which children begin the drawing of objects on paper is 
about ten years. After a few weeks 1 instruction they can make simple 
mechanical (working) drawings. It is considered a waste of time to 
draw both on paper and on the wood ; the latter is enough in most in- 
stances. The pupil's interest flags if he is required to do his drawing 
twice over; he is in haste to go on to the next model, and we let him 
do it. 

The classes in our London board schools number from fifty to seventy 
pupils. There is no rule limiting the size of classes. The upper classes 
are smaller than the lower, because the boys drop out as they become 
old enough to work. 

Efforts are now making to train the masters of the regular classes so 
that they may teach the manual training. It is expected that masters 
so trained will be able to manage and teach their classes in detachments 
of from twenty-five to thirty. A class of fifty-six could probably be 
taught in two equal detachments. 

The London school board is holding classes for the training of teachers 
in wood-working twice a week at different centres. Only men are ad- 
mitted to these classes, there being on the part of the board no intention 
of employing women for this kind of teaching. Men are considered to 
be much better adapted to the work. It is not proposed to introduce 
wood-working into the girls' schools, as the girls already have needle- 
work and cooking, and soon will have laundry work. 

We have made some changes in the sloyd to adapt it to English 
children, who apparently work more quickly and less patiently than 
the Swedish children do. We hold our children to a high standard of 
accuracy. In all cases when a child is to make an article we show him 
one completed, take it apart and explain all the parts to him. This 
method appeals to that love of production which we all have, and 
arouses the ambition of the child to make an entire object, which would 
not be the case were he only allowed to make parts of an object. We 
favor the use of few tools rather than of many, believing that we can 
obtain greater skill in a given time in that way, 

The London school board will have nothing to do with the " sloyd 
system, 1 ' so called, but is doing a good deal for " hand-craft." This 
hand-craft (a word, by the way, we much prefer to sloyd) is a system 
which the board is working out in the London schools quite indepen- 
dently. It is more like the Russian shop work than Swedish sloyd. It 
is based on drawing from the very beginning, and the manual consists 
chiefly of exercises.* 



* Since this statement was made, full information as to the character of the wood- 
working in the London schools has appeared in a recently published book; entitled 
" Wood- work (the English sloyd), by S. Barter, organizer and instructor of manual 
training in wood-work to the London school board, and organizing instructor to the 
joint committee on manual training in wood work of the school board for London, 
the city and guilds of London Technical Institute, and tbe Worshipful Company of 
Drapers. With 302 illustrations. Preface by George Ricks, B.Sc. Lond. London: 



228 MANUAL TKAINING AND 

There is at present very little printed matter available for the study 
of manual training in England The whole subject is in a tentative, 
experimental and unsettled condition. Everything depends on the de- 
velopment of teachers. Mere artisans cannot be the teachers of sloyd, 
for they know nothing of its educational aims. Regular teachers, on the 
other hand, seldom have the necessary skill to command the confidence 
of their classes. We have observed some unfortunate instances of 
teachers who have been rushed through the training classes, and then, 
with little or no experience in sloyd teaching, never having been re- 
quired to reproduce unaided and on their own responsibility the work 
they had been taught, placed in positions as fully competent teachers. 
We are likely to suffer from too low an estimate of the mechanical skill 
necessary for regular teachers to acquire in order to become good 
teachers of sloyd ; just as we have suffered from underestimating the 
teaching skill that an artisan should possess for the same purpose. 
What we want is the easy facility of the artisan and the jDedagogical 
knowledge of the teacher united in one person of high character. 

Clay modelling and free-hand drawing ought both to be made parts 
of the course for training teachers. We are getting to be altogether too 
mechanical. We are not enough accustomed to judge of distances and 
dimensions without measurements. Every good teacher should be able 
to go to the black-board and make a rapid sketch of the object the class 
is making. 

Note. — It is but fair to say that the above report has never 
been revised by the ladies who favored the Commission with their 
remarks, and that the stenographic report was somewhat confused 
and imperfect. To the best of my recollection and belief, how- 
ever, the substance of what was said has been given accurately. 
— Edwin P. Seaver. 



AVhittaker & Co. 1892." This book conclusively shows that the work in "English 
sloyd" consists almost wholly of finished articles, and that mere "exercises" are 
very few in number The relation of this English to Swedish sloyd may be learned 
from these few words of Mr. Ricks in the preface : " The author of this book has 
invited me to write a short preface, doubtless partly because I have taken the most 
active interest in the introduction of manual training into public elementary schools 
as a necessary part of the school curriculum, and partly because I was the first to 
suggest the introduction of a modification of the Naas sloyd into the wood-work 
classes conducted under the joint auspces of the city and guilds of London Institute 
and the school board for London, in which classes the author was a distinguished 
teacher. I gladly accept the invitation, for two reasons: (1) I am anxious to 
acknowledge to the full our great indebtedness to the Swedish sloyd. In his intro- 
duction the author points to certain defects in this system when measured by our 
special wants and changed conditions; but, nevertheless, the fact remains that, 
without the sloyd, we should probably have taken some years to work out such a 
scheme as that so graphically portrayed in the following pages.". 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 229 



Appendix L 



MANUAL TRAINING IN ENGLISH SCHOOLS. 

By Sir PHILIP MAGNUS, 
Director of the City and Guilds of London Technical Institute. 



Manual training is at length recognized * as a part of the Eng- 
lish system of public elementary education. When we remember 
the opposition with which the suggestion that workshops should 
be introduced into British schools was met, we have reason to be 
satisfied with the progress which the movement in favor of manual 
training has made daring the last few years. 

It was in 1882 that the Royal Commissioners on Technical In- 
struction, impressed with the educational value of workshop train- 
ing in the schools which they had visited in France, suggested in 
their preliminary report, that, by way of experiment, manual in- 
struction might be introduced into a few of the elementary schools 
of England. In 1884, after they had had opportunities of further 
considering the beneficial effect of workshop training, they recom- 
mended in their first report that instruction in the use of ordinary 
tools should form part of elementary education, and should be 
subsidized out of State funds by means of grants, much in the 
same way as is the teaching of cookery and needle-work. 

This suggestion met with considerable opposition and some 
ridicule, owing mainly to the incorrect views which prevailed as 
to the advantages to be secured by workshop instruction. We 
were told that the trade unions would object to the undue increase 
in the number of carpenters and joiners which would follow from 
the encouragement proposed to be given to the teaching of wood- 
work in ordinary schools ; that the school was not the proper place 
for teaching trades ; that slip-shod habits of work would be formed ; 
and that the time devoted to literary instruction was already too 
short, and would be further curtailed by the introduction of a new 

* In the year 1890. 



230 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



subject into an overcrowded curriculum. Many even who favored 
the movement did so on the erroneous ground that the children of 
the poor were being over-educated, and that it was a good thing 
that they should learn a trade at school ; and it was suggested 
that the trade to be taught should be that practised in the district 
in which the school was situated. The removal of these incorrect 
views was no easy matter. In 1886 Sir John Lubbock wrote an 
interesting article on the subject in the "Fortnightly Review," 
which was followed by a paper of my own in the " Contemporary 
Review," embodying the views I had previously expressed at the 
Birmingham meeting of the British Association. In the following 
year, in order to give the experiment a fair trial, the City and 
Guilds of London Institute, with funds placed at their disposal by 
the Drapery Company, offered to the school board for London the 
sum of one thousand pounds for the establishment of centres of 
instruction in the use of wood-working tools. They had previously 
made arrangements by which teachers of elementary schools might 
undergo a systematic course of carpentry instruction at their Cen- 
tral Technical Institution ; and the number of teachers who applied 
for admission to the course was far greater than the workshops of 
the institution could accommodate. A joint committee was formed 
of members of the school board and of the City Guilds Institute ; 
and the organization and direction of the instruction was left to 
this committee. The first question to be decided arose out of the 
selection of a teacher. There were some who urged that the most 
fitting person to teach carpentry was an experienced carpenter. 
Others pointed out that the object of the instruction was not to 
make carpenters, but to train the hand and eye, and that the best 
instructor would be a person skilled in the art of teaching and 
practically acquainted with the use of tools. The old battle had 
to be fought again between the advocates of manual training as a 
part of apprenticeship to a trade, and those who regarded it simply 
as an educational discipline, and as a necessary part of the ele- 
mentary instruction of all children. 

A very happy compromise was effected. Six centres were 
formed, three on the north and three on the south side of the 
Thames, and two very competent instructors were found, — the 
one a skilled artisan, who had distinguished himself as a science 
teacher in evening classes, and the other a trained elementary 
school teacher, who had gone through a course of carpentry les- 
sons at the Central Institution. The experiment has proved most 
successful. The opposition to manual training as a part of school 
education has practically ceased, and a new era of elementary 
school teaching has been inaugurated. Ministers, statesmen, gov- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 231 

ernment officials and educationists have visited the centres and 
have seen the children at work, and have expressed their satisfac- 
tion with the value of the training, not only as encouraging a taste 
for handicraft, and helping to inculcate the lesson of the dignity 
of manual labor, but as an intellectual exercise and educational 
discipline. The success of the experiment verified the theories 
of every progressive educationist, from Locke to Huxley, and 
naturally assisted the Natural Association for the Promotion of 
Technical Education in their endeavors to obtain the recognition 
by Parliament of manual training as a part of primary instruction. 
The battle is now won. The new Code, which Parliament issued 
this year, and which regulates the State-aided instruction through- 
out the country, recognizes manual training as a part of public 
elementary education. It provides that manual instruction may 
be given in the school premises or elsewhere, and whether or not 
by the ordinary teachers of the school, and it suggests that manual 
instruction should be given in conjunction with drawing. The 
effect of this inclusion of manual instruction among the subjects 
recognized by the Code is that the cost of the instruction may be 
defrayed out of the ordinary school board funds derived from the 
rates. Previously no part of the general school fund could be 
applied to the provision of manual instruction, that subject not 
being recognized as coming within the parliamentary definition of 
public elementary education. In the circular which is issued as a 
guide to the inspectors in giving effect to the provision of the Code 
occurs the following important paragraph on manual training : — 

The difficulty which has hitherto prevented the recognition of manual 
training as part of the ordinary course of instruction in a public ele- 
mentary school has been removed by the alteration in the terms of Art. 
12 (f). In some foreign schools manual exercises in continuation of 
the employments of the kindergarten, and graduated in difficulty, are 
carried onward through all the classes of the school, and are found to be 
not without a useful reflex influence on all the ordinary school studies. 
Such exercises sometimes consist of modelling, the cutting, fixing and 
inventing of paper patterns, the forming of geometrical solids in card- 
board, and the use of tools and instruments. Although no special grant 
is made by this department for such instruction, you will watch with 
care the working of any experiment which is made in this direction, 
and will report upon it. 

The use of the expression "this department" was thought to 
imply that the department of the committee of council on edu- 
cation, which has the direction of scientific and technical instruc- 
tion, and is known as the " science and art department," might be 



232 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

enabled to make especial grants from the imperial fund in aid of 
manual training ; and this expectation has been fulfilled. The 
science and art department, in the directory for 1890, offers, under 
certain conditions, a grant of six shillings or seven shillings, accord- 
ing to the quality of the work done, for every scholar in a public 
elementary school who is receiving manual instruction, provided 
that the instruction so aided is : (a) in the use of ordinary tools 
used in handicraft in wood and iron ; (b) given out of school 
hours in a properly fitted workshop ; and (c) connected with the 
instruction in drawing ; that is to say, the work must be from 
drawings to scale previously made by the scholars. 

A note to clause b explains that the expression " out of school 
hours " means only that the manual instruction shall be in addition 
to, and shall not be taken out of, the minimum of twenty hours 
per week to be given to the teaching of other subjects included in 
the Code. It is, however, a condition for obtaining the grant from 
the imperial funds that each scholar shall have passed the fourth 
standard, and shall have received manual instruction for at least 
two hours a week for twenty-two weeks during the school year. 

As regards the advantage of associating manual instruction with 
drawing, every one is agreed ; but difference of opinion exists as 
to the advisableness of insisting on a minimum of two hours' in- 
struction a week. In many places, notably in Liverpool, where 
manual instruction has been successfully given, it has been found 
that a lesson of one hour and a half, once a week, is sufficient, 
and efforts will be made to obtain a modification of the rule on this 
point. 

It will be seen that the legislation of this year enables the school 
board rates to be employed in defraying the cost of manual in- 
struction, and also provides grants from the imperial funds in aid 
of such instruction. The latter subvention is most important, for 
without it manual instruction might have been restricted to the 
board schools, in which less than one-half of the children of the 
people are educated. The voluntary or denominational schools 
receive no aid from the rates, but they equally with the board 
schools obtain grants from imperial funds. Not only, therefore, 
is manual instruction recognized by the new Code as a part of ele- 
mentary education, but the teaching is directly subsidized by the 
State. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 233 



Appendix M. 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 



Boston Manual Training Course. 
Class III. (First Year.) 

1. Clay modelling of sphere, cube and cylinder, and of familiar 
objects approaching these types (e. g., apple, nest, basket, box, 
house, stove, bottle, rolling-pin, muff) ; also of hemisphere, square 
prism and triangular prism, and of familiar objects approaching 
these types (e. g., bowl, spoon, saucer, cake, brick, steps, cradle, 
boat, stool) . 

2. Paper folding and cutting of faces, edges and sections of 
the above-named solids, in blue, red and yellow papers, carefully 
measured and divided, with study of squares, circles, angles and 
lines. 

3. Sewing in colored threads (blue, red, yellow) on coarse 
cloth or canvas (stitches over and under, counting threads), in 
vertical, horizontal and oblique lines, the same in parallel lines, 
and in outline forms, as in paper folding. 

4. Stick laying, preceding, and conformed to, the regular 
drawing lessons for this grade. 

Glass II. (Second Tear.) 

1. Clay modelling of the ovoid, ellipsoid, cone and square 
pyramid, and of plant and animal forms approaching these types 
(e.g., leaf, petal, corolla, seed vessels, heads and trunks of vari- 
ous animals, bills of birds, eggs). 

2. Paper folding and catting, in colored papers (red, blue, 
yellow, orange, violet, green) , of plane figures made by sections 
of the above-named solids, and of plant and animal outlines ap- 
proaching these types (e.g., leaf, sections of fruit, flower, seeds, 
star-fish, shells) ; also of bilateral and radiate designs based upon 
these, for decorative work. 



234 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

3. Sewing on canvas, with colored threads, on the same lines 
of development as in the paper cutting. 

4. Stick laying, preceding, and conformed to, the drawing les- 
sons for this grade. 

Class I. {Third Year.) 

1. Clay modelling of symmetrical designs on plaques, and of 
plant and animal forms in relief on plaques, or as models for art. 

2. Paper folding and cutting in all colors, tints and shades, 
for harmony of color and beauty of design ; also in bilateral 
curves conformed to the drawing lessons for this grade. 

3. Sewing on soft cloth, in colored worsteds, for harmony of 
color, beauty of design and free use of curved lines. 

4. Light card-board construction work, modifications of type 
forms, for use or beauty ; representations of toys, utensils, furni- 
ture, etc., with the use of glue. 



Manual Training Course laid down by New England Super- 
intendents' Association. 

First Year. — Clay modelling typical forms, corresponding 
forms in nature ; paper folding and cutting ; stick laying ; sew- 
ing ; drawing. 

Second Year. — Clay modelling ; paper folding and cutting ; 
peas and sticks ; drawing. 

Third Year. — Clay modelling ; paper folding and cutting ; 
cloth and card cutting ; drawing ; color. 

Fourth Year. — Clay modelling ; paper, card-board and cloth ; 
sewing on card-board and cloth ; color. 

Fifth Year. — Clay modelling on tiles and maps ; paper and 
card-board construction ; drawing ; sewing ; color. 

Sixth Year. - — Clay modelling ; paper, card-board and soft 
wood ; drawing ; sewing. 

Seventh Year. — Clay connected with science and geography ; 
drawing ; sewing ; cooking. 

Eighth and Ninth Years. — Clay ; wood-work (sloyd) ; drawing. 



Manual Training Exhibit from Washington Schools.* 

The exhibit from the public schools of Washington, D. C, 
represented form study as developed through clay moulding and 



* From "A Conference on Manual Training," printed by Geo. H. Ellis, 
Boston, 1891. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 235 

carving, stick laying, paper folding and cutting, construction of 
models in card-board and examples of design applied to needle- 
work, drawing and tool laboratory work in shops. The con- 
structed forms and drawings were arranged in the order of their 
development through the twelve years of the school course, in- 
cluding high school and the normal training school. Both the 
constructions and the drawings were selected from the regular 
school work of the pupils, which represented the courses of work 
actually in operation as far as they could be represented by an 
exhibit. 

First Year. — Geometric solids, together with a variety of ob- 
jects suggested by these forms, were shown in clay. No drawing 
was shown in this connection. (The use of the pencil at the 
beginning of the first year is confined to drills for securing correct 
position and correct movements for drawing straight and curved 
lines.) The study of the edges of the solids made in the grade 
was shown by constructions with sticks of different lengths, defin- 
ing both the geometric forms and invented combinations of them. 
These were represented by drawings. The planes, squares, oblong 
rectangles, triangles, with invented combinations of the same made 
in folded colored paper, were shown, drawings of the same being 
given . 

Second Year. — Forms were shown in the same materials as 
those of the first grade and in the same order, those in clay being 
of increased size and of greater variety. In stick laying the 
rhomb was contrasted with the square, and the rhomboid with the 
oblong rectangle, etc. The sticks were used also to develop ideas 
of length and of the division of lines. This work was represented 
by drawings. The paper folding of this year involved all the 
geometric forms having right lines, including original combina- 
tions, primary colors and their tints being used. Drawings of 
these forms were given. 

Third Year. — The forms in clay were larger than those of the 
first and second grades. The paper work was shown in cutting, 
consisting of units of design and their arrangement in squares, 
oblong rhombs, triangles and borders. This year was represented 
in drawing by drill exercises in straight lines and circles, top and 
front view of solids, representations of envelopes, fans, bottles, 
representations of the designs in colored papers. 

Fourth Year. — The sphere, the ellipsoid and the ovoid were 
the geometric forms represented in clay. Based upon these forms 
were many fruit forms and forms of pottery of specified height, 
showing increased power in the use of clay. Paper cutting was 
shown, consisting of units of design and their arrangement in the 



236 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

pentagon, the hexagon, the octagon and in borders. The pencil 
drill of this year was shown in the circle, the ellipse and the oval. 
The drawings were of forms above named, as well as of fruits and 
vegetables drawn from nature. 

Fifth Year. — Working drawings and developments for geo- 
metric forms with the forms in card-board made from the work- 
ing drawings were shown. Drawings of objects, the cylinder and 
the cone, and mugs, tumblers and other objects based on those 
geometric forms, were exhibited, giving their appearance as seen 
below the level of the eye. Leaf drawing from nature was an 
important feature of the work of this year, a great variety of 
leaves being shown. In decorative work these leaves were con- 
ventionalized and arranged in rosettes and borders. These were 
applied to outline embroidery. A few were cut in paper. In 
clay, ivy and other leaves were shown. Conventional arrange- 
ments of leaves and some historic forms, principally the lotus, 
carved in clay, were also shown. 

Sixth Year. — Advanced working drawings, and their develop- 
ments with models made from them in card-board, were shown. 
The drawings represented rectangular solids, in addition to draw- 
ings similar to those of the fifth grade. These were drawn from the 
constructed forms, single and in groups. Drawings from nature 
of leaves and branches, and decorative arrangements designed 
from these, were shown. Mouldings in clay of leaves and 
branches were shown, with some examples of historic ornament, 
moulded and carved. 

Seventh Year. — Working drawings of this year made by use of 
instruments involving geometric problems were shown. Object 
drawings were of groups of geometric solids and various other 
objects based on them. The drawings from nature were leaves, 
branches and flowers. Decorative work consisted of bilateral 
arrangements of the foregoing. Applications of color to articles 
of use were shown in this year's exhibit. 

Eighth Year. — Additional geometric problems and their appli- 
cations to construction were shown, also drawings of objects in 
the school-room to scale, and complete working drawings of many 
small objects. Pocket-books made of leather, and numerous other 
useful articles, were exhibited. The object drawing consisted of 
groups of books, vases and other forms. Drawings from nature 
were flowers, from which the decorative arrangements were made. 
Many of these were applied to the embroidery of various articles. 
Mouldings in clay were groups of fruit, nuts, flowers and of his- 
toric ornament. Mouldings of some of the bones used in the 
study of physiology were shown. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 237 



SOMERVILLE COURSE. 

Kindergarten. — Folding, sewing, weaving. 

First Grade. — Sewing and clay modelling, illustrating lessons 
in natural science. Cutting, folding and free drawing, based 
upon the study of the sphere and cube. 

Second Grade. — Cutting from free drawing, and drawings based 
upon the cylinder, square prism, hemisphere and triangular prism. 

Third Grade. — Cutting and drawing based upon ellipsoid, ovoid, 
equilateral triangular prism, cone and square pyramid. 

Fourth and subsequent grades indicate more definitely the three 
leading lines of drawing : namely, first, constructive ; second, pic- 
torial ; and third, decorative, as follows : drawing of facts of 
type forms already studied ; drawing of natural objects based 
upon sphere and ellipsoid ; arrangements of type forms in paper ; 
borders and surface covering. 

Fifth Grade. — Drawings of facts of type forms and objects 
based on type forms. Pictorial drawings of natural forms and 
simple familiar objects. Arrangement in paper of units around a 
centre and borders. 

Sixth Grade. — Drawings of facts of simple objects and patterns. 
Perspective of the cylinder and objects based upon the cylinder. 
In paper, arrangements of units to show by bilateral symmetry sur- 
face covering and drawing of simple forms of historic ornament. 

Seventh Grade. — Top, front and end views of solids. Simple 
groups of objects, involving free-hand parallel perspective. In 
paper work, borders and all-over patterns, and simple forms of 
historic ornament. 

Eighth Grade. — Drawings to show construction of more diffi- 
cult objects. Groups of objects showing parallel perspective. In 
paper work, repetition of units to cover a vertical surface. 

Ninth Grade. — Work in constructive drawing. Objects in 
angular perspective drawn. In paper work, simple designs from 
conventionalized plant forms. 



Springfield Course. 
Drawing was first introduced into the grammar grades of the 
schools in 1870, but was taught by the regular teachers. A spe- 
cial teacher in drawing was appointed in 1874. The Prang books 
were used in all grades for several years. In 1890 grades six, 
seven, eight and nine began working upon drawing pads, the work 
being prepared by the supervisor of drawing. The work in all 
grades at present is as follows : — 



238 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

First Year. — Solids : sphere, cylinder, cube, hemisphere. 
Prisms : square, right-angled. Expression by moulding clay, 
cutting, drawing at board and on paper, pasting and sewing. 

Second Year. — Review first-year solids, and study equilateral 
triangular prism, ellipsoid, ovoid, cone and square pyramid. 
Leaves. Expression as in first year. 

Third Year. — Review from study. Prang's Shorter Course, 
Book 1, twice. Additional work on paper. Making in card- 
board. 

Fourth Year. — Prang's Shorter Course, Book 2, twice. Addi- 
tional work on paper, and making in card-board. 

Fifth Year. — Prang's Shorter Course, Book 3, twice, or Books 
3 and 4. Making in card-board. 

Sixth Year. — Making in card-board. Paper. Natural leaves. 
Spirals, and curves upon which designs can be constructed. His- 
toric ornament from copy. Designs, using leaves or ornament as 
motives. Appearance of cylinder, cone, cube, square prism, and 
common objects based on these solids, two faces showing. Fruit 
and vegetables. Working drawings, teaching use of three views. 
These views show foreshortened faces, invisible edges, sections, 
expression of dimensions. 

Seventh Year. — Work done on blank paper. Study of natural 
leaves. Skeleton curves for designs. Designs using convention- 
alized leaves as motives. Historic ornament from copy. Appear- 
ance. Review work of sixth year, and teach cubes, prisms and 
plinths at 45°. Group solids ; vegetables. Use of compasses. 
Essential geometric problems. Application of compass work to 
designing, working drawings and making in card-board. 

Eighth and Ninth Years. — Work done on blank paper. Study 
leaves and flowers. Plant analysis in connection with designs. 
Drawing natural objects preparatory to science work in high 
school. Historic ornament. Mechanical drawing. Use of T 
square, triangles and drawing board. Making in card-board. 
Review working drawings. Teach use of scale. Working draw- 
ings of common objects, pupils taking their own measurements. 



Motive of the Prang Manual Training Course * 

The primary school work of the Prang course leads the little 

child (in most cities and towns, under present conditions, he is 

fresh from home and street, with no previous helps in mastering 

himself and the world) through the study of type forms into 

* Paper l>3 r Mrs. Mary D. Hicks. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 239 

direct and happy familiarity with things having form, and so into 
the possession of clear and correct concepts of form. This study 
of type forms is carried on in close connection with the study of 
kindred forms in nature and in art ; and, developed progressively 
in accordance with the well-known law of opposites and their 
mediation, which is the law of harmony in art as well as in the 
kindergarten, gives the child, during his first two or three years of 
school life, such mental grasp of his environment as serves him 
well in all later work. Here, too, in the earliest primary grades, 
is begun that free expression of individual thought and feeling 
which characterizes the educational use of art processes, — lan- 
guage, building, clay modelling, tablet and stick laying, paper 
folding and cutting, free drawing, the use of color materials, — 
all these are utilized as simple and practicable means for the out- 
ward expression of inward activity. And it is not found difficult, 
in this most elementary work, to awaken in the children the be- 
ginning of a true art feeling, and to lead them to put such feeling, 
crudely but truly, into their own modelling, drawing and making. 

It is easy to see how this department of primary school work 
touches every other department with its wholesome and happy 
spirit. Language, number, elementary science, nature studj T , 
simple calisthenics and motion songs, all find themselves related 
to this primary work in form drawing and color, and helped by it 
to an extent which only the wise kindergartner could have fully 
predicted. 

The work of the Prang course, in grades above the primary 
schools, is logically based on that of the earlier years. Dividing 
naturally into the three inter-related subjects of constructive draw- 
ing (drawing as related to construction and the industrial arts) , 
representative drawing (drawing as related to pictorial art) and 
decorative drawing (drawing as related to ornament), it develops 
consistently and naturally along these three parallel lines, being 
closely related, all the way through the grammar school, to the 
contemporary work in arithmetic, geography, natural science, his- 
tory and literature. Children are led, as early as may be, to con- 
firm their previously gained concepts of form by working, in cer- 
tain exercises, from these mental concepts alone, rather than from 
tangible, material things ; letting the imagination recreate the 
thing, and express its own creation by modelling, making or draw- 
ing. And again, as the course of study develops, more attention 
has necessarily to be given to technique. Ideas of beauty should 
have beautiful expression, and the ability to express beautifully 
must be acquired through patient practice under wise direction. 
From the fourth and fifth grade upward, provision has therefore 



240 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

to be made for excellence of rendering as well as freedom of ex- 
pression, much free drawing being naturally and helpfully done in 
connection with other school studies. The aim throughout the 
course is the cultivation of the power to think form clearly and 
correctly, either with or without the sight of objects possessing 
form, and to express, with truth, simplicity and beauty, both those 
ideas of form which are directly gained from the observation of 
nature and art, and those which are the flower of the creative 
imagination. Abundant evidence already shows that this founda- 
tion of form study, this systematic primary-school practice in the 
elements of hand training, followed up as it is in the higher 
grades by exercises in reading and making working drawings and 
the actual construction of objects with constant regard to the art 
principles involved, gives school children sound and satisfactory 
preparation for the special instruction of the best manual training 
schools, or for intelligent entrance on industrial pursuits. 

The training afforded by the Prang course along the lines of 
decorative art leads immediately and helpfully up to both spiritual 
and so-called "practical" service in daily life. Intimately con- 
nected as it is with all the industrial arts, its utilitarian value 
hardly needs exposition. It is only when one considers the sig- 
nificance of a crude or a cultivated taste in the choice of things of 
daily use that one begins to realize the import of educating the 
taste of a whole generation of children. 



Course of Instruction in Sewing laid down by New England 
Superintendents' Association. 

First Year. — Folding ; basting ; back-stitching ; overcasting ; 
hemming ; proper wearing and use of thimble in connection with 
needle ; right length of thread, threading needle and making 
knots ; holding of work by left hand ; position of work and needle 
taught in connection with stitch given, also beginning, joining and 
fastening of thread. Stitches should first be drawn upon paper, 
using the ruler to insure accuracy of stitch. Hems, wide and nar- 
row, may first be turned upon paper, using the ruler for a measure. 
Each new stitch should be preceded by a drill in the proper posi- 
tion of the hands and fingers while making the stitch ; also a drill 
for the arms in the motion of drawing the needle and thread 
through the cloth. Models : articles brought from home may be 
towels, napkins and handkerchiefs to hem. 

Second Tear. — Review previous year's work; overhanding on 
folded edges ; overhanding on selvages ; wide hems ; plain fell ; 
darning tear ; running, especial drill given in the position of the 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 241 

fingers in making this stitch, also teaching the pupils to use the 
side of the thimble. Models : a pillow slip, plain apron without 
gathers, or small sheet. 

Third Year. — Review previous year's work ; gathering, laying 
or stroking gathers, putting gathers into band by back stitching 
and hemming ; French fell, straight fell, reversible seam ; darning 
tear with silk ; patching on cotton cloth ; button-holes commenced, 
four-holed buttons sewed on ; feather and herring-bone stitches ; 
the proper way of tearing or cutting cloth for bands or ruffling, 
viz., straight or across the grain. Models: apron with band, 
plain white cotton or flannel skirt with band, button-hole, and 
button sewed on. 

Fourth Year. — Review button-holes and sewing on buttons ; 
putting in gussets ; darning tear with ravellings ; patching on 
calico and woollen goods ; stocking darning ; cutting bias bands 
and joining same ; tucking and ruffling. Models : some garments 
to be made, combining the stitches learned and teaching the cutting 
and putting together. 

Suggestions : in all grades particular attention should be given 
to the position of pupils while sewing. Accuracy of rule and 
measure is to be insisted upon. Soft, half-bleached cotton cloth 
and colored thread may be used for practice work, the colored 
thread showing the shape and size of the stitches better than white. 

Materials for practice work for one pupil for the first year are as 
follows : one-half yard of half-bleached cotton cloth ; one spool 
red cotton, No. 50 ; one spool blue cotton, No. 50 ; one spool yel- 
low cotton, No. 40 ; thimble, pinball and sewing bag made from 
one-half yard of calico, with owner's name sewed upon it. 



Philadelphia Sewing Course. 
Fifth Grade. — Position of the pupils while engaged in sewing ; 
the proper use of the thimble finger, first finger and thumb of the 
right hand ; position of the left hand for holding the work ; drill 
in the same ; exercises in the action of taking a stitch and drawing 
the thread through the material ; drill in the threading of the 
needle (needle and thread may be given out at the beginning of 
the lesson) ; turning, basting and sewing plain hems (attention to 
be given to accuracy in width of hems and size of stitches used in 
basting and hemming) ; correct use of scissors (paper may be 
supplied for this purpose) ; overseaming on turned edges (the raw 
edges maybe turned in and hemmed down). If more material 
is needed than that furnished by the Board of Education, towels, 
wash-rags and similar articles may be hemmed. 



242 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Sixth Grade. — Questions and exercises in the use of thimbles, 
scissors, threading the needle ; the direction of the needle, as 
used in basting and sewing a hem (time for these exercises, five 
minutes) ; overseaming with explanations and exercises in joining 
a new or broken thread ; running seam, composed of one running 
and one back stitch, the raw edges to be overcast ; cutting out and 
making simple articles, e. g., children's bibs, plain over-sleeves. 
Work brought from home may be table napkins, towels, bags, desk 
covers and pillow slips. 

Seventh Grade. — Questions on position, the proper use of the 
thimble and scissors ; exercises in threading the needle ; questions 
on the direction of the needle when used in basting, hemming and 
overseaming (time for this exercise, five minutes) ; reversible 
seam ; plain fell, sewed with running stitches, strengthened by an 
occasional back stitch and finished by hemming ; back-stitched 
seam overcast on the raw edges ; patching commenced ; cutting 
out of plain under waists without seam under the arm. Work 
brought from home may be towels, table napkins, pillow slips, 
ruffles to hem, bags and worn articles that may need patching. 

Eight Grade. — Questions on the work of lower grades (time for 
this exercise, five minutes) ; plain fell repeated ; gathering, plac- 
ing or stroking the same ; sewing the gathers into a band, using 
half back stitching, the band finished with hemming ; darning 
commenced ; work to consist of stocking and dress darning ; cut- 
ting out patterns of under waists and aprons of all kinds. Work 
brought from home may be aprons, under waists, combing towels, 
shoe bags, ruffles to hem and gather, darning and mending. 

Ninth Grade. — Narrow hems, hems of medium and broad 
widths ; tucks (threads should not be drawn from the material 
to secure straight tucking) ; narrow, plain fells ; French fells ; 
fine gathering, hemmed to a band ; button-holes ; gussets ; shirt 
or other four-holed buttons sewed on ; stocking mending and 
patching ; cutting out and making drawers from actual measure- 
ments. Shoe bags, sleeves, aprons, muslin skirts and plain under- 
garments may be brought from home to be made, and kept in 
school until finished. 

Tenth Grade. — Bias seams of all kinds ; gathering, as done on 
dress skirts, to be overseamed to a band ; the two stitches used 
on flannel undergarments, viz., herring-bone stitch and feather 
stitch ; button-hole ; cutting out and making gored skirts. Chil- 
dren's plain underwear, boys' shirt waists, collars and cuffs, dust- 
ing caps and plain flannel skirts may be supplied from home. 

Eleventh Grade. — Questions and review of all work done in 
previous grades ; paper patterns drawn and cut for undergarments 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 243 

from actual measurements ; material for such garments brought 
from home and cut out in school ; pupils taught to place the pat- 
terns properly and economically on the musliu ; work basted and 
fitted on the pupils. 

Twelfth Grade. — Review of all work done in previous grades; 
pupils should be required to decide which seams should be used 
for the several parts of the garments cut and made in this grade ; 
first steps in dressmaking ; method of basting lining and material 
together for dress waists and sleeves ; trying on and fitting the 
same ; adjusting facings to lined gored skirts ; sewing on braid, 
etc. Mending of all kinds must be encouraged by the teacher. 



Brookline Sewing Course. 

Fourth Year. — Threading needle ; use of thimble ; exercise of 
thimble finger ; position of needle against thimble, and pushing 
through cloth without thread ; use of scissors ; first stitches learned 
on canvas with worsted ; basting ; stitching ; back stitching, turn- 
ing, basting and sewing hems ; oversewing turned edges ; begin- 
ning and joining of thread for these different kinds of work ; 
questions on year's work. 

Fifth Year. — Position while sewing ; review of last year's 
work ; work done on pieces of unbleached cloth, nine inches by 
three inches, and all seams sewed with three colors of cotton, to 
show joinings ; two pieces of cloth basted together ; stitching 
below basting ; hemmed fell, turned with needle ; running stitches, 
needle remaining in cloth throughout entire length ; one-inch hem 
turned, basted and sewed ; button-hole practice commenced ; edge 
of cloth turned straight and oversewed to hem ; running and 
back-stitched seam cut evenly and overcast ; French seam ; fell, 
the hem being turned with the needle ; patch prepared, basted and 
hemmed on ; patch prepared, basted, stitched in and overcast ; 
oversewing selvage edges ; gusset set into selvage seam ; tucks 
measured, basted and run ; stroking ; sewing into binding ; ques- 
tions on year's work. 

Sixth Year. — Exercise of scissors on striped and checked cloth 
(stripes train the eye for cutting by a thread in fine cloth) ; exer- 
cise of thimble finger ; button-hole practice (cross bar on outer 
edge in overcasting and straight bar on inner edge in finishing, — 
every part of button-hole work represented on black-board) ; 
darning of all kinds, — in stocking goods (hole darned on wrong 
side, small loops left to allow for shrinkage), in fine cloth, in 
worsted fabric with ravellings, in silk and satin with ravellings of 
same, in table linen with fine linen floss ; learning number of 



244 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

needle and number of cotton used for different kinds of work ; 
sampler commenced (the sampler is made of fine white cloth, 
carrying out in cotton the instructions given in lower grades on 
coarse cloth with colored cottons) ; cross-stitch made on canvas 
with worsted ; questions on the year's work. 

Seventh Year. — Sampler continued ; single and double feather- 
stitch on canvas with worsted ; herring-bone stitch on canvas with 
worsted (both represented on black-board) ; herring-bone stitch 
with silk on flannel ; feather-stitching with silk on flannel ; button- 
holes, different sizes, on sampler ; button-hole with twist on flannel 
(button-holes cannot be practised too much) ; gathering, strok- 
ing, sewing on band ; sewing on buttons ; gusset made ; sampler 
finished ; hemstitching ; Mexican work on linen ; alphabet in cross- 
stitch, on scrim, with silk ; length, width and bias of cloth taught 
in tnis grade ; questions on year's work. 

Eighth Year. — Embroidery darning ; embroidery button-hole 
stitching, couching, French knot ; outline stitch ; outline upon origi- 
nal designs ; advanced drawn work ; harmony of color ; primary 
cutting (drawers) by measurement from black-board ; intermediate 
cutting (skirt and sleeve) by measurement from black-board ; 
finish piece of work from this instruction for exhibit ; questions 
and review of work done in lower grades ; questions on year's work. 

Ninth Year. — Study of proportion of human form for cutting 
and fitting dresses ; talks on dress materials ; calculation for 
amount of material, of different width goods, needed for waist, 
skirt, sleeves, etc., proper kind of lining for different dress 
materials ; matching of plaids and stripes ; first steps in dress 
cutting ; pin paper to model of girl's form, and cut out pattern ; 
pin on sarcenet, or thin cambric, and cut out pattern ; pupils 
taught to fit dress lining to each other ; pupil taught to represent 
in colored paper (from book of models) a perfect pattern of dress 
she wishes to make (this instruction leads to knowledge of design- 
ing) ; dress cut and made (much of this work can be taught from 
black-board ; make it class-work as much as possible) ; gored skirt 
drawn and cut by measurement ; questions on year's work ; review 
of instruction given in lower grades. 



Cookery Lessons.* 
Lesson on the Fire. 
Before we cook anything we should learn how to make and 
attend to a fire, as, no matter how well the materials are pre- 

* By Miss Duff. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 245 

pared and put together, unless the heat for cooking is what it 
should be the results will not be successful. 

To make a fire we must have something to burn, — paper, wood, 
coal, oil, gas, candle, etc., — in short, we must have fuel, which 
means anything that is used for burning or for making a fire. 

Pupils are shown a piece of wood, a candle, etc. Here is plenty 
of fuel, and yet there is no fire, so something besides fuel must be 
necessary. A pupil suggests lighting a match, and a little ques- 
tioning brings out the fact that from the match heat may be ob- 
tained, — the second thing necessary for our fire, — to make the 
fuel hot enough to burn. 

How shall we light the match ? It is suggested that it be rubbed 
against something. At one end of the common match is a red 
substance, a preparation of phosphorus, and beyond this extends 
for a short distance a thin coating of sulphur, which is the name 
of the yellow substance, and the rest of the match is of soft wood. 
Which end shall we rub? We are told to rub the red end, which 
is rubbed against a piece of glass. It does not light ; it must be 
rubbed against something rough ; so a piece of sand-paper is tried, 
and it lights at once. 

The rubbing of two substances together is called " friction," a 
word which means " to rub." Friction or rubbing always pro- 
duces heat, and the rougher the surface the more friction, and the 
more friction the more heat. (Pupils rub hands together, and find 
that heat is produced.) 

Had we rubbed the other end of the match against the sand- 
paper as much heat would have been produced, but we know from 
experience that it would not have lighted the wood, and we know 
also that if the red tip were broken off the sulphur would not light, 
either. We learn from this that some substances require more to 
make them burn than others. As the phosphorus preparation on 
the end of the match was rubbed against the sand-paper, enough 
heat was produced to light it, as it burns easily ; and, as it burned, 
it heated the sulphur till it was hot enough to burn, and this in 
turn heated the wood till it also was hot enough to kindle. 

The degree of heat necessary to make a substance burn or kindle 
is called its "burning point," or kindling point. Any substance 
which needs but little heat to make it burn (or a low degree of 
heat) is said to have a low "burning point," that is, it lights 
easily. We know that phosphorus must have a low burning point, 
and that sulphur has a higher burniug point, and that wood has 
a higher still, because more heat is required to make them burn. 

Ancient methods of obtaining heat are mentioned, — Mint and 
steel, etc. A burning match is laid across a small box which rests 



246 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

on the table, and while it burns freely a tumbler is put over it, 
close to the table. The match soon goes out. Another is lighted 
and placed in the same position, and the tumbler again placed over 
it and allowed to remain until the flame is almost extinguished. 
The tumbler is then raised, and the flame burns freely. This is 
repeated, and each time the tumbler is raised the flame starts up, 
and goes down when the tumbler is lowered. It is plain from this 
experiment that the tumbler shuts out something that is quite as 
necessary to our little fire as fuel or heat, and that is air. The air 
that is all about us is a mixture of two gases, four parts nitrogen 
and one part oxygen, which is the life-giving part of the air, — 
the part that is needed to keep our fire burning, and the part that 
animals breathe to keep them alive. 

We have learned, then, that three things are absolutely neces- 
sary to make our ordinary fires burn : — 

First. — Fuel, or something to burn. 

Second. — Heat, to make fuel hot enough to burn. 

Third. — Air, to keep fire burning, or to " support combustion." 

We could make a fire out of doors, aud use various means to 
hang kettles, etc., over it, but it would be neither convenient nor 
safe to do so in the house, without some method of enclosing it, 
and it is also necessary to regulate the supply of air, as more or 
less heat is desired. Our fires are usually enclosed in iron boxes, 
which we call stoves ; and, as the conditions for making a fire in 
all enclosed spaces are the same, we will for convenience light a 
candle for our fire, and use a lamp-chimney to enclose it. 

The candle is lighted and the chimney held over it a few inches 
from the table. It burns freely, so we know that there must be 
present the three things needed, fuel, heat and air. As there is an 
opening at the top of the chimney as well as one below, the ques- 
tion arises, Through which one does the air go in to keep the fire 
burning? Holding the hand above the chimney, we feel the hot 
air coming up against it, and when a feather is held over it it is 
blown upward, showing that the air which comes out at the top of 
the chimney is hot, and also that it rises, for even When the hand 
is held some distance above, the hot air may still be felt. Placing 
the hand at the opening below the chimney, we find that the air is 
no warmer there than in other parts of the room ; and, as there are 
but two openings, one above and one below, and we know that hot 
air comes out at the top opening, we think the cold air must go in 
below. 

The chimney is lowered till it rests on the table, leaving no open- 
ing below. The candle soon goes out, though there is an opening 
at the top. We are sure now that the air which keeps the fire 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 247 

burning is supplied from below. We have thus learned two 
things : first, that in our enclosed space the air to keep the fire 
burning goes in at the lower opening ; and second, that heated air 
rises ; and we understand why furnaces are placed in the cellar, 
and not in the attic. 

Knowing that our stove must have one opening to let the air in, 
we will see whether any other one is necessary. The candle is 
once more lighted, the chimney being held a few inches above the 
table as before, and while our little fire is burning freely a piece of 
glass is laid over the top of the chimney, and in a very short time 
the fire goes out. There was plenty of space for air to get in, so, 
as the candle did not burn, we know that something more is needed, 
and we remember that when we held the hand over the chimney we 
felt hot air coming out, so the glass evidently kept in something 
that ought to get out. We have learned that it is the oxj^gen in 
the air which the fire needs to keep it burning, and we remember 
that when the tumbler was placed over the burning match it did 
not go out instantly. The air in the tumbler contained a certain 
quantity of oxygen, and the match burned until this was used up. 
When the oxygen is burned out of air what remains is really no 
longer air, but there is formed watery vapor, and a gas which is 
poisonous for animals to breathe and in which no fire can burn. We 
shall learn more about this later. (It is worth remembering that 
where a candle cannot burn a man cannot live, — a fact made use 
of in going down into unused wells. This poisonous gas is heavy, 
and sometimes settles at the bottom of wells, vats, etc. A lighted 
candle is gently lowered into the well, and if it continues to burn a 
man can descend in safety, otherwise he cannot until means have 
been used to get the gas out, as, if there is not oxygen enough to 
keep the candle burning, there is not enough for a man to breathe.) 

The keeping in of this poisonous gas, then, is what caused our 
candle to go out ; and we thus learn that in every stove there must 
be, besides a place for fresh air, or air containing oxygen, to get 
in, a place for the gases, etc., formed by the burning to escape. 
As the heated air, and the gases formed by the burning, — " par- 
tial products of combustion," — rise and go out at the top of the 
chimney, cold air is drawn in to take their place, and motion is 
thus produced, which is called a "draft." When the expression 
is heard, " The stove doesn't draw well," or " The chimney hasn't 
a good draft," it is meant that something prevents the air from 
going in freely, or that there is some reason why the gas, etc., 
cannot escape freely. The word " draft" means to " draw," and 
it is used here because when the heated air, etc., rises, cold air is 
really drawn in, sometimes with considerable force, to take its place. 



248 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Examining our stove, we find it to be a large iron box, with a 
space at one end lined at the sides with fire-clay, and the bottom 
is formed of iron bars with openings between, and we know this is 
the place where the fresh air goes in, and the same openings allow 
the ashes to drop through. This space is called the "fire box," 
because in it the fire is built. Outside the fire box, on the front 
of the stove, is a slide called the front damper, which may be 
opened or closed, as more or less air is needed. Directly behind 
and close to the fire box is another iron box, set into the stove in 
such a way that there is a space between the top of the stove and 
the top of this second iron box, which is really the oven ; being 
smaller than the stove, a space is also left between the end of the 
oven and the end of the stove, as well as under and behind it. At 
the back of the stove, in the top, is an opening controlled by 
another slide, called the chimney damper, which controls the open- 
ing into the pipe which connects the stove with the outer air. This 
chimney damper and the front damper are the only ones absolutely 
necessary ; but we find here still another damper, called the oven 
damper, the use of which we will now learn. Lighting a piece of 
paper, we notice that the flame is drawn directly across the top of 
the oven to the chimney damper. We will close the oven damper, 
and we find that the opening to the chimney through the chimney 
damper is closed, and the flame is drawn across the top of the oven, 
down the opening at the end, under the oven and up behind it, 
finally reaching the chimney, and we thus understand that by the 
closing of this oven damper the heated air is forced to go around 
the oven before reaching the chimney, and in this way the oven 
is heated. The arrangement of these dampers differs in different 
cooking stoves, but the principle is the same in all, — there must 
be a lower or front damper to control the supply of fresh air, and 
there must be a chimney damper to allow the escape of smoke, 
gas, etc. ; and to heat the oven, the oven damper is necessary to 
force the heated air, etc., to take a longer course before reaching 
the chimney. When the fire is built all the dampers should be 
opened, allowing plenty of fresh air to go in ; the chimney damper, 
to allow smoke, gas, etc., which goes off more abundantly when 
the fire is first lighted, to escape freely, and the oven damper, to 
allow the smoke, etc., to go off as quickly as possible. When the 
fire is burning freely the oven damper is the first one to be closed, 
that the oven may be heated. 

To build the fire, paper, soft wood, hard wood and coal are gen- 
erally used, shavings being frequently substituted for paper. The 
principle underlying the construction of the match is reviewed and 
applied to the building of the fire ; paper, which is put into the 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 249 

fire box first, crumpled to make more spaces, which, being filled 
with air, cause it to burn more freely ; soft wood, which, having 
a higher kindling point than the paper, is heated to the necessary 
degree by the burning paper (the soft wood has coarse fibres rather 
loosely packed together, the spaces being filled with air when the 
wood is dried, while hard wood, having finer fibres more closely 
packed, has less air among the fibres, and so does not burn so 
easily as the soft wood) ; and the coal next, which, having a higher 
kindling point than either, must be heated by their burning to its 
kindling point. The wood must be arranged slightly crosswise, 
that the air may circulate around it, being careful at the same time to 
keep it close to the ends of the fire box, that the coal may not drop 
through the grate, and so not be kindled. When the coal is well 
kindled close the oven damper first, that the heat may be utilized, 
then the front damper and chimney, more or less, according to heat 
required. The latter damper is so arranged that, even though the 
slide on the outside of the stove is wholly closed, the opening in- 
side cannot be entirely closed. If it could, ignorant or careless 
persons might close it, and the fire would not burn, or, if already 
burning, the poisonous gases would fill the room and much injury 
be caused to persons there, especially if sleeping. We also learn 
that after the fire has been burning long the ashes collect at the 
bottom of the grate and must be picked out with the poker, as 
otherwise the air could not reach the hot coals, and the fire would 
go out. 

The Cookery of Starchy Foods. 
Introduction : — 

1. Foods containing starch more extensively used than any other. 

2. Examples of these foods, — potatoes, oatmeal, rice, flour, corn, 

etc. (in nearly all vegetables and grains). 
Necessity for cooking : — 

1. To soften and dissolve the starch. 

A. Makes it more palatable. 

B. Makes it more digestible. 
Experiment with starch : — 

1. Starch subjected to heat alone. 

A. Changes from white to yellow. 

B. Changes from yellow to brown. 

C. Changes from brown to black, — burned. 

2. Starch subjected to water alone. 

A. Starch and cold water, — does not dissolve. 

3. Starch subjected to heat and water. 

A. Changes from milky white liquid. 

a. Grows thicker and clearer. 

b. (When boiled) a clear, thick paste. 



250 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Explanation : — 

1. This is corn-starch, — any starch will act in the same manner. 

2. The composition of all starch is the same, the difference being 

only in the appearance and size of the grannies. 

3. Grannies, — microscopic. 

A. Appearance. 

a. Irregular, wrinkled or folded membraneous sac 
(starch inside). 

B. Effect of heat. 

a. Dries and hardens. 

C. Effect of cold water. 

a. Starch is not dissolved. 

b. Simply a mixture. 

D. Effect of boiling water. 

a. Starch absorbs water through membrane, swells, 
and finally bursts membrane, and is partially 
dissolved in the water. 
Application of experiment to : — 

1. Potatoes (composed of about three-quarters water and one-fifth 
starch) . 

A. Boiled. 

a. Cooked until soft. 

b. Removed at once, as boiling water partially dis- 

solves starch, and the potato would become 
soggy. 

B. Baked. 

a. Water in the potato furnishes the moisture. 

b. Starch absorbs the moisture when heated, and be- 

comes soft. Potato is cooked. 

c. Skin should at once be broken, to allow the steam 

to escape, because as the steam cools the water 
formed would make the potato soggy, instead 
of " dry and mealy. " 
Conclusion : All starchy foods need heat and moisture to cook them. 
If the vegetable or grain dees not contain sufficient, it must be 
added. 
Summary : — 

1. Review principal points to be remembered. 

2. Additional knowledge. 



Yeast. 
Introduction : — 

1. A good yeast cake known. 

A. Light, even color. 

B. Absence of dark streaks, — probably mould. 

2. Yeast cake made up of thousands of tiny plants, each capable 

of increasing rapidly. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 251 

What yeast is : — 

1. A plant, — one of the smallest and simplest forms of vegetable 
life. 

A. Appearance. Like tiny cactus plant. (Teacher illustrate 

on board when explaining manner of growth.) 
a. Transparent, oval cell. 

B. Growth. 

a. Conditions. 

(1) Air, warmth, moisture and something sweet. 

b. Manner. (Illustrate on board.) 

(1) By budding. 

(2) Very rapid, — can be seen. 

C. Where obtained. 

a. From froth of beer, usually, while fermenting. 

D. Named a " ferment." 

a. Ferments have the power to change other sub- 
stances without being changed themselves. 

E. Unfavorable conditions. 

a. Temperature little lower than 212° F. kills it. 

b. Temperature of 32° F. renders it torpid. 
Yeast in bread : — 

1. Why bread is kneaded first time. 

A. To distribute evenly the little yeast cells. 

B. To thoroughly mix ingredients. 

C. To make the dough smooth. 

2. Favorable conditions. 

A. Air all about. 

B. Flour, containing starch and gluten. 

C. Warmth and moisture. 

a. Lukewarm water, — why not cold ? 

3. Result. 

A. Yeast plant grows. In growing the ferment causes the 
following changes : — 

a. Part of the starch of the flour is changed into starch- 

sugar. 
(1) Change not apparent. 

b. Starch-sugar converted into alcohol and carbon 

di-oxide, — a gas. 
(1) The gas (CO) in its effort to escape pushes 
up the dough, it is rendered porous and 
is said to have risen, — it is " light. 11 

c. If dough is left undisturbed — another change — it 

becomes " sour 11 (lactic or acetic acid is formed, 
according to circumstances). 
(1) This change prevented by baking. 

4. Bread kneaded a second time when dough has doubled its bulk. 

A. Breaks up large holes caused by gas bubbles. 

B. Makes texture uniform and liner. 



252 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

5. Bread baked. 

A. To cook the dough. 

B. To kill yeast plant, — " check fermentation." 

C. To drive off alcohol and carbon di-oxide. 

D. To make the bread eatable. 

a. More palatable. 

b. More digestible. 
Summary : — 

1. Review essential points. 

2. Additional information about yeast, " wild germs," leaven, etc. 

Baking Powder, 

Introduction. Composition of baking powder : — 

1. Present soda, name it, — ■ cooking soda or bi-carbonate of soda. 

A. Measure definite quantity, — one teaspoonful. 

2. Present cream of tartar, name it. 

A. Measure definite quantity, — two teaspooniuls. 
Fact : twice as much cream of tartar as soda. 

3. Give fact : baking powder is a mixture of soda with twice as 

much cream of tartar, with a little flour or corn-starch 
added to keep it dry. 
Experiment: — 

1. Mix in a tumbler one part soda and two parts cream of tartar. 

A. Effect when dry, — no effect apparent. 

B. Effect when wet with cold water, slight effervescence. 

C. Effect when wet with hot water, or subjected to heat and 

moisture, rapid effervescence, escape of gas evident. 
[Note. — Gas is the same as that in soda water of drug stores.] 

a. Gas named, carbon di-oxide. 

b. Commonly called carbonic acid gas, 
Explanation. Facts given : — 

1. Cooking soda is an alkaline substance, which contains a gas. 

2. This gas is liberated by any acid substance. Proved by experi- 

ment. 

3. Experiment. 

A. Soda and vinegar. 

B. Soda and lemon juice. 

Result : immediate effervescence, gas liberated. 

4. Reasons for not using these acids in cooking. 

A. Rapid and immediate escape of the gas. 

5. Teacher gives fact that cream of tartar is an acid substance, and 

its special value lies in the fact that it acts in but slight 
degree until heated. 
Practical application of the use of baking powder in doughs, etc. : — 
1. Biscuit. One pint of flour. 

A. Proportional of baking powder, two teaspoonfuls (meas- 
ured rounding, on account of flour or corn-starch in 
the mixture of cream of tartar and soda)* 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 253 

B. Water or milk, — cold, — why ? 

a. Slow escape of gas. 

C. Handling of the dough. 

a. Warm hands. 

b. Heat produced, gas escapes. 

D. Conclusion. 

a. Handle as little as possible. 
2. Baked biscuit examined. 

A. Risen. 

B. Porous. 

C. Dough cooked. 
8. Questions. 

A. Where is the gas ? 

a. Driven off by heat of oven. 

B. Why is it porous ? 

a. Puffing up of the dough by bubbles of gas in their 

efforts to escape. 

b. Explanation of the tenacity of the gluten in the 

flour. 
(1) Gluten grows tougher when kneaded, — a 
second reason for handling the biscuit 
dough as little as possible. 

c. Heat hardens or cooks the dough before gas escapes, 

thus retaining the shape of the bubbles. 
Summary : — 

1, Review of things taught, and additional knowledge. 

A. Composition of baking powder. 

B. Proportion of soda and cream of tartar. 

C. Why add flour or com-starch ? 

D. Influence of heat, moisture and handling. 

E. Proportion of soda and cream of tartar equivalent to 

given quantity of baking powder. 

F. Equivalent proportions of soda and sour milk. 

G. Equivalent proportions of soda and molasses. 



Albumen, — Eggs. 
Introduction : — 

1. Albumen is one of the most valuable and nutritious ingredients 
of food. 

A. Strength giving. 

B. " Building-up " material. 
Albumen : — 

1 Principal sources. 

A. Eggs. 

B. Meat. 

a. In blood principally. 
[Note — White of egg contains almost pure albumen.] 



254 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Experiment with egg albumen : — 

1. Albumen subjected to the action of heat alone. 

A. Is coagulated, becoming tough, hard and horny. 

2. Albumen subjected to the action of water. 

A. Cold water, albumen is dissolved. 

B. Hot water, — 134°- 160° F. upward, but not to 212°,— 

albumen is coagulated, becoming of a tender, jelly- 
like consistency. 

C. Boiling water rapidly coagulates the albumen, which 

becomes hard and tough. 
[Note. — Coagulated albumen will not dissolve in water, hot 
or cold.] 
Conclusions applied to the cookery of egg albumen : — 

1. Heat alone will cook albumen. 

2. Cold water dissolves albumen, will not cook it. 

3. Water at temperature above 134°-160° F. but below 212° cooks 

albumen slowly, but renders it tender and jelly-like. 

4. Boiling water cooks albumen quickly, but renders it hard and 

tough. 
Facts, — albumen : — 

1. Digestibility. 

A. Uncooked, digests readily. 

B. Cooked till tender, almost as readily. 

C. Cooked till hard, digested slowly and with difficulty. 

2. Flavor. 

A. Improved by cooking. 

B. Variety, according to degree of heat applied. 
Summary : — 

1. Review points taken 

2. Value of eggs as food. 

3. Manner of cooking them. 

Albumen, — Meat. 
Introduction : — 

1. Albumen of meat found in blood and juices. 

A. Value of juice as compared with rest of meat. 
a. Contains much of the nutriment. 
6. Contains nearly all the flavor. 
[Note. — Never allow juice of meat to soak into wrapping 
paper.] 
Experiment : — 

1. Meat previously scraped and soaked in cold water. 

A. Water colored red. 

B. Meat is almost white, albuminous juice extracted and dis- 

solved by cold water. 

2. Water and albumen heated. 

A. Red color changes to light brown, then darker. 

B. Water becoming hotter, albumen separates as " scum." 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 255 

C. Water boiled, separated albumen becomes harder, settles 
as sediment, leaving water almost clear. 

3. Small piece of meat put into boiling water, temperature lowered 

after a minute, then meat allowed to remain eight or ten 
minutes. 

A. Outside of meat hardened, color changed to light brown. 

B. Water is not colored, no juice comes out. 

C. Meat cut, inside tender and juicy. 

4. Piece of meat put into boiling water and allowed to boil rapidly 

five minutes. 

A. Meat hard and light-colored outside. 

B. Meat cut, hard and tough ail through. 

5. Meat exposed to heat alone. 

A. Intense heat at first, then lowered. 

a. Outside rapidly hardened. 

B. Meat cut open. 

a. Inside tender and juicy. 

6. Meat exposed to intense heat during entire time of cooking. 

A. Outside hard. 

B. Cut open, inside hard and tough. 
Application to preparation and cookery of meat : — 

1. Cold water draws out albuminous juices. 

A. Wipe with damp cloth ; never soak meat in cold water to 

cleanse. 

B. Method of making, — 

a. Beef tea, soups, broths, etc., obvious. 

2. Boiling water keeps juices in by hardening outside rapidly. 

A. Preparation of boiled meat. 

B. Caution: long-continued boiling hardens the meat all 

through ; it is tough and dry. 

C. Best method : plunge meat into boiling water, and after 

outside is hardened reduce temperature of water. 
Fact: Long, slow cooking in water makes tough meat tender. 

3. Pupils apply principle to roasting meat. 

A. Kind of meat for roasting. 

a. Tender. 

B. Intense heat at first. 

a. Hardens outside and keeps juice in. 

C. Temperature lowered. 

a. Prevents hardening inside. 

4. Broiled meat. 

A. Hot fire, — hold close to fire at first. 

a. To harden outside quickly. 

B. Reduce heat, — hold farther away from hot coals. 

a. Prevent inside from becoming hard and dry. 

h. Attention to thickness of steak. 

c. Only tender steak should be broiled. 

(1) Long, slow cooking in water needed to 
make touffh meat tender. 



256 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Summary : — 

1. Review principles learned. 

2. New applications. 

Lesson on Breads-making * 

Description of the yeast-plant. Composition of flour. Steps : — 

1. Flour moistened. 

• 2. Yeast added (ferment), 

3. Dough left in a warm place (warmth assists fermentation) . 

4. Dough kneaded (to distribute C0 2 evenly). 

5. Dough shaped. 

6. Dough baked. 

A. To kill the yeast plant. 

B. To toughen gluten. Firm cell walls. 

C. To expel C 2 , C 2 H 5 H O, H 2 O. 

D. To cook starch, albumen, etc. 

E. To form crust, convert C 6 H 1Q O s into dextrine and C 6 

H 12 6 . 
Dangers : — 

1 Too much yeast. 

2. Too long rising. 

3. Too little rising. 

4. Insufficient baking. 

5. Oven too hot. 

6. Oven too cool. 

If bread sours, the C 2 H 5 HO changes to H C 2 H s 2 , acetic acid. 
Reactions : — 

C 6 H 10 Q 5 = C 6 H 10 5 . 



:)• 



Yeast is a low form of vegetable life. It is made up of cells 
which keep dividing and subdividing,, forming new cells. The 
yeast plant needs a warm, moist, sweet, nitrogenous soil. It is 
necessary in fermentation. Germs of this plant are in the air, 
and so, to keep preserves from fermenting, they must be air tight. 
The yeast plant grows by feeding upon nitrogenous matter, taking 
O from the air for its breathing, and by catalysis changing the sugar 
into alcohol and carbon oxide. If the yeast plant is growing too 
rapidly to get enough O from the air for breathing, it takes O from 
a little of the sugar present, and that sugar changes into glycerine, 
succinic acid, etc. 



C 6 H 10 5 + H 3 


— C 6 H 12 6 . 






C 6 H L2 6 = 2C 


2 H 5 HH + 2C0 2 . 






C 2 H 5 HO + 2 


= HC 2 H 3 2 fH 3 0. 






Starch C 6 H 10 O, 


,. Alcohol C 2 H 5 HO. 






Dextrine C 6 H 10 


5 « Acetic acid H (C 2 


H a 





Dextrose C 6 H 12 


o 6 . 







* Girls' High School, Miss White's class in chemistry. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 257 

Flour is composed of starch, gluten, a little albumen, cellulose 
and a little oil. 

1. The flour is moistened to give the molecule of water to the 
starch to make dextrine, and to make the flour tenacious so that 
it will hold the C 2 , and to help the yeast plant in its growth. 

2. Yeast is added, to cause fermentation and make the bread 
rise. 

3. The dough is left in a warm place, because warmth assists 
fermentation ; heat kills the plant, and it will not grow at all in a 
cool place. 

4. The dough is kneaded to distribute C 2 evenly. Some 
knead it as soon as it is made, others wait until it has risen. If 
you do the latter, you let the plant grow in masses, and then trans- 
plant it. If it is not kneaded enough, the holes are large in some 
places and small in others. 

5. The dough is shaped just to make a pretty loaf. 

6. The dough is baked to kill the yeast plant, toughen the 
gluten, expel C 2 , C 2 H 5 H and H 2 0, to cook the starch, albu- 
men, etc., to form crust, and convert C 6 H 10 O 5 into dextrine and 
C 6 H^ 6 . 

In the crust the starch changes to dextrine, then to dextrose and 
then to caramel. 

Too much yeast gives the bread an unpleasant taste ; too long 
rising makes it sour ; too little rising makes it heavy ; insufficient 
baking makes it unhealthy. 



Course in Cooking. 

A progressive course for public cooking schools, which may be 
more or less elaborated according to grade, includes making and 
keeping fire ; care of stove ; study of drafts ; study of fuel and 
waste ; care of kitchen and kitchen utensils ; setting of table ; 
serving at table ; care of dishes and linen ; care of closets, refrig- 
erator and pantry ; care of diet and choice of dishes ; selection of 
meats and vegetables with reference to health, economy, variety 
and adaptation to the habits, the season or the market. 

A logical sequence in the study and preparation of foods may be 
as follows : — 

1. Study of cereals : how to cook each in water for gruel or mush ; 
how to make into breads. 

2. Study of vegetables : how to cook in water and how to bake, roast 
or fry. 



258 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

3. Study of fruits : how to serve uncooked, how to cook in water, 
how to bake, how to preserve, can and jelly. 

4. Study of beverages : tea, coffee, cocoa, milk, water, lemonade, 
etc., how to make and serve. 

5. Study of eggs : how to boil, bake, fry, mix and serve. 

6. Study offish : how to cook in water, roast, broil, fry and serve. 

7. Study of meats : how to boil, roast, broil, fry and serve. 

8. Making of chowders, broth, soup, stew, gravy, sauce. 

9. Study of shell fish : how to cook and serve, oyster, clam, lobster, 
etc. 

10. Making of pastry, pudding, cake and desserts. 

11. Study of ferments and effervescents : * yeast, saleratus, cream 
of tartar, baking powder, beaten eggs and other chemical or mechanical 
agencies used in cooking. 



Liverpool Training School of Cookery. 
Syllabus of Laundry Class for Elementary Schools. 

Lesson 1. — Demonstration: The process of disinfecting, and 
general rules for washing and drying table, body and bed linen, 
handkerchiefs, starched linen, silk, lace and muslin. Instruction 
in the use of soda, blue, melted soap, borax and ammonia, and 
information on the composition and action of these articles, and of 
alkalies and acids. Use of petroleum. 

Lesson 2. — Practice : Practical application, by the children, of 
the work shown at the previous lesson, with questions on the 
theoretical instruction given. 

Lesson 3. — Repetition of second lesson. 

Lesson 4. — Demonstration: On mixing starch, hot and cold; 
cleaning and heating irons ; management of fire ; arrangement of 
ironing table ; damping ; folding ; mangling ; ironing. 

Lesson 5. — Practice : Practical application by the children. 

Lesson 6. — Repetition of fifth lesson. 

Lesson 7. — Demonstration: On washing and drying flannels 
and woollen goods, both woven and worked, and silk ; starching 
and ironing linen, print, lace and muslin ; polishing iron ; ironing 
and folding shirt. 

Lesson 8. — Practical application by the children. 

Lesson 9. — Repetition of eighth lesson. 

Lesson 10. — Practice of the different processes without direc- 
tion from teacher. 

Two courses in cookery are given, — one in plain household 

* Such practical part of this subject as is necessary to bread making should be 
given with No. 1. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 259 

cookery and one in high-class cookery. A course consists of 
twelve practice lessons, ten in cooking and two in cleaning, with 
the corresponding demonstration lessons. 

The ten practice lessons in plain household cookery will include : 
(1) Stock, roasting and boiling ; (2) Soups, vegetables ; (3) 
Bread and cheap cakes; (4) Fish; (5) Sick-room cookery ; (6) 
Pastry ; (7) Puddings ; (8) Cheap dishes from tripe, fry, etc. ; 
(9) Cold meat dishes; (10) Melting and clarifying fat, and the 
uses of macaroni, rice, curry and haricot. 

The ten practice lessons in high-class cookery will include : 
(1) Stock, roasting, boiling; (2) Stewing, grilling, braizing; 
(3) Various ways of dressing fish ; (4) Soups, vegetables ; (5) 
Puddings; (6) Sick-room cookery ; (7) Entrees; (8) Bread and 
cakes; (9) Pastry; (10) Jellies and creams. 



School of Domestic Economy, Purdue University, 
Lafayette, Ind. 

First Term. 

Lectures. — Home-making ; our kitchen interests ; the art of 
cooking ; bread making. 

Practice. — Bread making, including yeast, ferment, dough ; 
fermentation of dough, baking of dough, cooking and care of 
bread ; graham bread, fancy rolls and twists, German coffee cake. 

Lecture. — Boiling, simmering, stewing. 

Practice. — Soup stock, beef tea, plain soup ; boiling meats and 
vegetables ; stewing meats and vegetables. 

Lecture. — Broiling and roasting. 

Practice. — Broiling meats and poultry ; dressing poultry, lard- 
ing ; dressing meats and poultry. 

Second Term. 

Practice. — Making omelets and cooking eggs; cooking cereals 
and making coffee, tea and chocolate. 

Lecture. — Frying. 

Practice. — Frying oysters, ham, chicken, potatoes and mush; 
baking, boiling, frying and scalloping fish ; making fruit, custard 
and English pies ; making puddings and pucldidg sauces. 

Lecture. — Mixing and seasoning. 

Practice. — Making chicken, vegetable, and fruit salads; mak- 
ing croquettes, stews and hashes ; setting tables and serving 
food. 



260 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Third Term. 

Lecture. — Household management. 

Practice. — Housework ; laundry work ; selecting meats and 
family supplies ; handling milk and cream, making and taking 
care of butter ; boning turkey and chicken ; making cake ; deli- 
cate desserts ; making candy. 

Lecture. — Social etiquette and usages of society. 

Practice. — A high tea and sociable. 



Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry. 
Department of Domestic Science. 

The course in domestic science is designed to give young women 
a liberal training in matters pertaining to the organization and 
management of the home. It provides courses in science, with 
experimental laboratory work. It gives scientific training in 
physical exercises, accompanied by careful instruction in physi- 
ology and hygiene. On industrial lines, it gives practical instruc- 
tion in cookery, millinery, plain sewing and dressmaking. 

The facts of chemistry, physiology, hygiene, etc., are correlated 
in a series of lessons under the name of household science. These 
lessons extend through the entire course of two years, running 
parallel with the other work, and showing its practical bearing in 
the conduct of life. There are also special courses in physiology, 
hygiene and sanitation, to which the public are admitted. The 
courses in cookery are supplemented by lectures on the chemistry 
of foods, and the dressmaking and millinery courses by lectures 
on the chemistry of textiles and dyeing. 

The chemical and physical laboratories and the kitchens are well 
equipped with the newest and best appliances. 

Department of Domestic Economy. 

The course in domestic economy embraces the following topics : — 

First Year. — Chemistry, cookery, millinery, physical training, 
English (literature and current events) and household science. 

Second Year. — Physiology, hygiene and sanitation, dressmak- 
ing, decorative art, accounts, English literature and household 
science. 

The fee is thirty dollars per term (five months). 

The full course covers two years' work, but students may take 
a part of the course, and may elect from the foregoing list of 
studies such topics as they may desire, subject to the approval of 
the director of the department. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 261 



Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Course in Domestic Science. 
German ; physics (energy and heat) ; chemistry (general, 
qualitative and quantitative) ; chemistry of foods ; chemistry of 
cooking and calculation of dietaries ; biology (bacteriology, physi- 
ology ; emergencies (sudden illness, accidents, bandages, splints, 
poultices) ; hygiene (home and public) ; sanitary science ; house- 
hold science (ventilation, heating, lighting, water, etc.) ; household 
art (architecture, decoration, furnishing) ; home nursing (theo- 
retical and practical) ; sewing ; cookery ; laundry ; household 
economy (demonstration lessons in all branches). 

Course of Lectures on House Decoration. 

Lecture 1. — The Greco-Roman house : Origin of type ; general 
aspect; mode of life; dress; style in forms and ornaments of 
furniture, etc. ; the three styles of mural decoration ; some general 
principles of mural decoration. 

Lecture 2. — The mediaeval castle : (a) Type fixed in early mid- 
dle ages ; stage of civilization it represents ; character of ornament 
(Romanesque style) in mural decoration, furniture, etc., and 
dress. The castle in later mediaeval times : (b) Character of 
ornament (Gothic style) ; importance of wood-work, and what 
good wood- work is. 

Lecture 3. — Life and houses in the middle ages : Country 
houses, not castles, in northern Europe ; mode of life ; character 
of ornament ; comparison with town houses and castles. 

Lecture 4. — Mediaeval town palaces, in Italy: Type; mode of 
life ; character of ornament and decoration in fresco painting, 
wood-work, sculpture, etc. ; merging of decoration and architect- 
ure into early Renaissance style ; characteristics of this style, and 
the principles it embodies. 

Lecture 5. — Palaces and villas in Italy in the sixteenth century : 
Highly developed social life ; character, style and importance of 
decoration. 

Lecture 6. — Castles, town and country houses in northern 
Europe in the sixteenth century : Type remains northern, while 
architecture and decoration are influenced by the Italian Renais- 
sance. 

Lecture 7. — Seventeenth and eighteenth century: The modern 
country house ; type ; arrangement ; discussion of purposes of dif- 
ferent rooms, and style of decoration and furniture suitable to them. 

Lecture 8. — The modern town house and flat discussed from the 
same point of view. 



262 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Boston Normal School of Cookery.* 

The training given at this school is exclusively for those intend- 
ing to teach the " science and art of cookery," and affords a 
thorough and careful instruction on educational and technical 
lines. The course includes the science and technique of cookery, 
and such other sciences and normal methods as are important to 
a study of the subject. The physiological aspect is one of the 
fundamental considerations. 

The aim of the school is to present the subject in a broad and 
attractive way ; to interest and instruct by such methods as shall 
fit the pupils to fill the positions of teachers in manual training 
and domestic science schools, for which there is a growing demand. 

The class is limited, thereby affording the pupils the advantage 
of constant personal attention on the part of the instructors, as 
well as the important one of individual manual and technical 
practice. 

The time required is that of the school year, from October 1 to 
June 1, divided into two terms ; the hours from nine to two p.m. 
each day, except Saturdays, with the usual school holidays. 

Outline of School Schedule. 

The instruction is given by means of lectures and recitations, 
as well as by continued practice in the kitchen laboratory. The 
"outline of chemical theory" is taught with laboratory experi- 
ments ; also the principles of chemistry, as applied in the "chem- 
istry of cookery." 

First Course. — This includes a study of combustion and heat ; 
composition and use of fuels ; construction and use of gas and 
coal ranges ; composition of the human body, and the use and 
adaptation of foods to supply its constituents, heat and energy ; 
the " food principles," their chemical properties, and the applica- 
tion of moist and dry heat to the conversion of food materials 
into good feeding ; the chemistry of cookery, as applied and dem- 
onstrated by the general use and preparation of food substances, 
in the making of simple dishes, illustrating the fundamental princi- 
ples of cookery as well as the methods (of cookery) ; the various 
food substances, as milk, eggs, fish, the cereals, vegetables and 
fruits, are studied as to their composition and dietetic value, use 
in combinations and variations, and in the making of these simple 
dishes, with ways of utilizing food materials. 

In connection with the work thus outlined, lectures are given on 

* L. A. Nicholass, principal. 




INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 263 

human physiology, by a physician ; on the anatomy and physiology 
of the digestive organs and processes of digestion ; marketing, 
with practical demonstration on the selection of meats. 

Second Course. — This includes the preparation of class lessons 
and outlines of subjects to be presented ; practice and observation 
in the public-school kitchens ; demonstrations of lectures in cook- 
ery ; consideration of dietaries ; preparations of menus, with costs ; 
table setting and serving ; history of pedagogy ; lectures on psy- 
chology. 

Third Course. — * The making of more elaborate dishes, as fancy 
breads and pastry ; fancy desserts and cakes ; fish dishes with 
sauces ; ices ; roast game ; entrees ; preserves and jellies ; candies. 

Cookery for the Sick. — This course, as outlined, affords especial 
instruction in the use and preparation of dishes for the very sick, 
as well as for the convalescents The pupils are thus enabled to 
make a specialty, if desirable, of training nurses connected with 
hospital training schools, in this department. The course is 
arranged as follows : — 

1. Preparation and cooking of broths and acid drinks. 

2. Cooking of starchy foods and gruels. 

3. The making of nutritious liquid foods with and without 
stimulants. 

4. Use and preparation of meat and other jellies. 

5. The cooking of meats, eggs and other solids and combina- 
tions. 

6. The arrangement and serving of dishes for the sick. 
Instructions are also given in the purchase, use and care of 

household utensils ; the fitting and equipments of school kitchen 
laboratories, with costs. Visits are made to business firms, to 
afford knowledge of the selection and manufacture of goods and 
materials for practical and useful purposes. 

The diploma of the school is given to such as satisfactorily com- 
plete the required course in the " science and art of cookery," with 
examinations, and after giving practical evidence of their ability 
to teach the same. 



Municipal School of Useful and Domestic Arts, 
20 Fondary Street.* 

Object of the School. 
The Municipal School of Useful and Domestic Arts is designed 
to give young girls who have finished their primary studies the 

* Founded May 2, 1881, by the city of Paris. 



264 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

means of learning a lucrative business, at the same time training 
them in household cares, and thus preparing them to fulfil the 
duties which await them in the family. Young girls will also find 
in the school courses designed to fit for examination those who 
have not the certificate for primary studies, and to improve in their 
studies those who already have the certificate. Instruction is free. 
Pupils come to school at 8 a.m. and leave at 5.30 p.m., daily. 
Only day pupils are received. The apprenticeship lasts three 
years. 

Professional courses : dressmakers, seamstresses, embroiderers, 
corset-makers, laundresses, flower-makers, milliners, tailoresses. 

General courses (required of all the pupils) : primary instruc- 
tion, domestic economy, elements of book-keeping, drawing, gym- 
nastics, cutting and making. 

During the whole course pupils will be trained, in turn, in plain 
sewing and in kitchen and household work. 

All pupils must bring their lunch or take it at the school lunch 
room, as no permission to leave the building can be granted dur- 
ing the day. Scholarships giving lunch and clothing may be 
granted to pupils deemed worthy. 

At the end of the apprenticeship a certificate and a savings-bank 
book will be given those who pass all tests of the final examina- 
tions. 

Entrance examinations will occur at the school Thursday, July 
28, at 8.30 a.m., for the first list of applicants, and Thursday, 
September 29, at the same hour, for the second list. 

Applications will be received at the school from June 15 to July 
27 inclusive, and from September 19 to September 28 inclusive, 
from 9 a.m. till noon- Girls must be at least thirteen and not 
more than fifteen years of age. However, those holding primary 
certificates may be admitted at twelve years. They must present : 
(1) a certificate of vaccination ; (2) their certificate of birth ; (3) 
a certificate from the mayor that they are of French nationalhty, 
and reside in Paris or in the department of the Seine. Children 
living in suburban towns may be admitted to the professional 
schools of Paris if their rank in the examination warrant it, on 
condition that the towns to which they belong pay the sum of 
forty dollars for each child. These girls must apply in the first 
series. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 265 



Report presented in the Name of the Committee of Super- 
vision and Improvement of the Girls' School of Useful and 
Domestic Arts, 20 Fondary Street, on the Appropriation of 

1892 AND ON THE WORKING OF THE SCHOOL, BY Mr. BASSINET, 

Municipal Councillor. 

Gentlemen : — The Municipal School of Useful and Domestic Arts 
was established as an experiment in two rooms of the city school for 
girls, Violet Street, in May, 1881. It opened with seven pupils; in 
October, 1882, there were fifty; finally, when the school opened in 
October, 1883, they numbered eighty-five ; and, as the rooms were not 
sufficient, the municipal council then voted the necessary funds for larger 
quarters. In April, 1884, the professional school was permanently estab- 
lished, with one hundred and eight pupils, in the building where it now 
is, 20 Fondary Street. 

At first there were two rooms for sewing ; to-day there are twelve, 
with two hundred and seventeen pupils (dressmakers, seamstresses, 
embroiderers, makers of artificial flowers, corset-makers, laundresses, 
milliners and tailoresses) . 

Regulations. 

Pupils are admitted to the school daily, except on holidays, from 8 a.m. 
till 5.30 P.M. They may bring their lunch, which may be warmed at the 
school restaurant ; or may there obtain, for the small sum of five cents, 
a soup, a plate of meat and vegetables. 

Absence, without previous permission of the principal, must be ex- 
cused by a note from parents or guardian, stating reasons. During the 
day, parents are notified by the principal of all absences. Unexcused 
absence is punished. It it occurs too often, the supervising committee, 
at the request of the principal, expels the pupil. 

As pupils return home each evening, parents are not allowed to visit 
them during the day without especial reason, left to the discretion of the 
principal. 

Monthly marks are entered on the pupils 1 note books, indicating their 
work and deportment. The principal receives parents daily, from 8.30 
to 9, and gives more complete information than that entered in the books. 

The results of the term examinations inform the parents of the progress 
made by the child in the instruction given. 

Pupils' dress, in the establishment, is optional, but must be neat and 
decent ; pupils must be provided with a black apron. 

Pupils owe respect and obedience to all persons holding any position 
in the school. The committee and the management are anxious to 
accustom the children to those habits of politeness which are the mark 
of a good education. 

No pupil is allowed to leave the building alone, without a permit from 
the principal, which must be handed to the doorkeeper. 

The rewards in use are : good marks entered in the note books ; the 
vacation trip given the pupils who have obtained the best marks ; the 



266 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



prizes given pupils of the first and second year ; those of the third year 
also obtain savings-bank books. 

The punishments are : loss of credits ; entering a bad mark in the note 
book; reprimand of the supervising committee; public reproof; sus- 
pension ; and expulsion, on the principal's report, with reasons, to the 
supervising committee. 



Programme. 



A. General courses taken by all the 
apprentices : — 

1. Primary instruction, prop- 

erly so called. 

2. Elements of accounts. 

3. Industrial and ornamental 

drawing. 

4. Plain sewing. 

5. Cutting and making. 

6. Instruction in housekeep- 

ing ; mending. 

7. Gymnastics. 

8. Domestic economy and 

practical instruction in 
kitchen and household 
duties. 



Special courses of technical in- 
struction : — 

1. Sewing and making. 

2. Making and trimming 

handkerchiefs, shirts, 
underclothing, etc. 

3. Washing and ironing. 

4. Embroidering goods for 

dresses (gowns) and 
furniture. 

5. Making artificial flowers. 

6. Corsets. 

7. Waistcoats. 

8. Millinery. 



The faculty comprises : — 

1. The principal, appointed by the minister of public instruction, with 
the advice and consent of the ministers of commerce, industry and the 
colonies, on nomination of the municipal council. 

2. The assistant teachers and instructors in general subjects, who 
have hitherto been appointed by the prefect of the Seine, but who shall 
in future be appointed in the same manner as the principal. 

3. The special instructors, appointed by the prefect of the Seine from 
a list of three candidates nominated by the supervising committee, after 
competitive examination. 



Medical Service. 

Doctor Bra, school physician, appointed by the prefect of the Seine, 
makes regular visits to the school, for which he receives sixty dollars 
per year. 

A large number of the pupils who have left the school since 1883, even 
those who did not finish their apprenticeship, have experienced some gain 
from the trade which they have been taught ; several have remained at 
home. It is not rare to find former pupils earning from 2 to 5 francs 
(40 cents to $1) a day as embroiderers. The earnings of the washer- 
women vary from $0.30 to $0.G0. Some are in business for themselves. 
The dressmakers, for whom it is more difficult to find places, on account 
of their number, earn from $0.30 to $0.70. The milliners and the corset 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 267 

makers find places at from $0.60 to $0.80 a day for the latter, and $12 to 
$15 a month for the former, with meals. A few, among the beginners, 
have their board only. We can as yet give no results for the tailoresses, 
as the room has only been open two years. As for the flower makers, 
the trade is but little sought in our quarter. The room has always had 
from five to seven pupils, except last year, when we had nine. Under 
these conditions it has not been difficult to find places for these gradu- 
ates. Only one is in business for herself, and the rest (one or two per 
year, at most) have found places at from $0.40 to $1 per day. 



School of Womanly Handiwork, Rome, Italy. 

This school, founded twenty years ago by one of the public- 
school teachers, is now supported mainly by the municipality, and 
is under the personal patronage of the queen and a commission of 
two gentlemen and twelve ladies, one of them an American. The 
curriculum includes sewing by hand and by machine on undercloth- 
ing and shirts ; making undervests of silk and wool ; dressmaking ; 
mending of all fabrics ; lace making, for use in repairing laces ; 
hand embroidery in gold, silver and silk ; machine embroidery ; 
stocking weaving ; artificial flower making from natural models ; 
laundry work and cooking ; also drawing and geometry, as applied 
to design. 

In the dressmaking classes the work is carefully graded from the 
simplest garments to costumes made for the queen and ladies of 
her court. The laundry department sends out every day scores of 
garments beautifully laundered ; each graduate from this room is 
fitted to open a laundry of her own. The cooking classes send to 
patrons daintily prepared breakfasts, luncheons and dinners, and 
also cook delicacies for invalids and prepare diets ordered by 
physicians. In the mending class room diagonally torn cashmere, 
frayed silk, costly laces and fans, worn table linen and fabrics 
covered with intricate designs are so perfectly mended that it is 
difficult to determine where. The drawing classes reproduce many 
designs from priceless bits of fabrics, vestments and parchments 
which are centuries old. In embroidery remarkable work is done 
on silk and satin with gold, silver, bronze and silk thread ; this is 
shown on such articles as superbly wrought church vestments, 
table covers, rich garments, etc. 

The secrets of many ancient tints and colors have by long and 
patient experiments been discovered at this school. Every shade 
in an India shawl or any elaborate ancient fabric can be repro- 
duced by these girls themselves in the dyeing room of the school. 
The old, exquisite dyes are bestowed on silk, wool and linen 



268 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

threads, and these are carefully spooled, so that their supply of 
the subtlest tints is almost unlimited. 



The North Bennet Street Industrial School. 

This is a private enterprise, carried on in the interests of public 
education and social reform. 

In the year 1885 an order was passed by the committee on 
manual training of the Boston school board, granting permission 
to pupils to accept the offer of Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw to receive 
manual training in the North Bennet Street Industrial School, 
"provided that parents of pupils should so request." Cooking, 
housekeeping and laundry work were offered to girls, printing, car- 
pentry and shoemaking to boys. To these clay modelling and 
Swedish sloyd were afterwards added. Housekeeping was com- 
bined with lessons in cooking, while laundry work was found to be 
impracticable. From that date until the present time classes from 
public schools have been regularly received here, during school 
hours and under school discipline, for weekly lessons during the 
whole school year. Over one thousand such public-school pupils 
received manual training here during the school year of 1890. 
Between three and four hundred more were members of the sum- 
mer classes of the vacation school. 

The conditions of this undertaking have been such that, in addi- 
tion to giving good training to this large number of boys and girls, 
it has been possible to do some valuable experimental work in 
various directions. Cooking and Swedish sloyd are conspicuous 
instances of successful experiment. This school has also served 
as a perpetual object lesson and laboratory for the public benefit, 
in which has been found not a little of its value. Students of the 
subject of manual training have been constantly invited to study 
and to criticise the work, and this invitation has been widely ac- 
cepted. That by its means persons have been helped to reach 
satisfactory conclusions is seen in the fact that manual training 
movements have been started in various suburbs of Boston, and in 
many other parts of New England, whose first impulse was re- 
ceived at the North Bennet Street School. 

Educational carpentry, both after the Russian and Swedish sys- 
tems, modelling in clay, cooking, printing and work in leather are 
all carried on at present with full classes ; but, while it has been 
found possible to employ educational methods in the last two 
courses, it is not thought that these should be urged upon the 
school curriculum. Sewing is an important part of the work of the 



1 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 269 

vacation school during July and August, and, together with dress- 
making, is also a feature of the evening work. 

The name of this school is a misleading one, but is retained as 
an inheritance from earlier days, when the methods of the institu- 
tion were more philanthropic than educational. Philanthropic and 
special work still have a place in this large undertaking, which 
reaches by its ministrations, by means of the work of the evening 
as well as the day, the summer as well as the winter, more than 
two thousand persons annually. 



270 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix !N". 



VISITS OF MRS. HOPKINS TO VARIOUS MANUAL TRAINING 
SCHOOLS ; WITH RULES AND REGULATIONS OF ADDISON 
STREET INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL; AND PAPER 
ON DOMESTIC ECONOMY, ETC., BY MRS. ELLEN H. RICH- 
ARDS. 



Equipment and Cost of Cookery School.* 
Housekeeping Equipment. — List of utensils needed: 1 long- 
handled bristle brush ; 1 short-handled bristle brush ; 1 large 
feather duster ; 20 small feather dusters ; 1 blacking brush ; 1 
polishing brush; 21 small scrubbing brushes; 2 small vegetable 
brushes; 1 vegetable basket; 12 yards dish towelling; 6 yards 
glass towelling* 18 yards of roller towelling; 10 yards coarse 
crash for dish cloths ; 5 yards coarse crash for oven cloths ; 5 
yards cheese cloth ; 3 yards dark cleaning flannel ; 1 yard fine 
crash for cloths for wiping meat, fish and fruit ; 10 yards ging- 
ham for aprons for housekeepers ; 1 table cloth ; 1 extension 
table ; 1 small refrigerator or a box built out of window ; box for 
wood and coal ; book case, with drawers below ; 20 earthenware 
soap dishes : 1 two-quart pitcher ; 1 one-quart pitcher ; 6 large 
plates ; 6 small plates ; 4 platters (1 large, 1 medium and 2 small) ; 
6 cups and saucers ; 3 one-pint round yellow baking dishes ; 3 one- 
pint oval white baking dishes ; 4 small nappies ; 4 medium nappies ; 
1 dozen quart bowls ; 2 dozen sauceplates ; 1 small beanpot and 
cover ; 6 glass tumblers ; 1 small molasses jug ; 1 small vinegar 
jug ; 12 two-quart Mason jars ; 12 one-quart Mason jars ; 12 one- 
pint Mason jars ; 1 hammer ; 1 pair scissors ; inkstand, pens, 
pencils, etc. ; blackboard and eraser. 

Cooking Equipment. — Running expenses, about one cent per 
pupil for each lesson. List of utensils needed : 20 hardwood meat 
boards ; 20 rolling boards ; 1 towel roller ; 5 rolling pins ; 5 wooden 
potato mashers ; 1 bucket for flour ; 1 twenty-five-pound bucket 
for sugar ; 1 fifteen-pound bucket ; 2 flat wooden spoons ; 1 nest 
wooden boxes ; 1 wood-fibre crumb-bucket, with cover ; 1 arm 

* Class of twenty pupils. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 271 

towel rack ; 1 small towel horse ; 10 agate (or granite) desk pans ; 
1 agate dish-pan ; 5 one-qnart agate saucepans and covers ; 5 two- 
quart agate saucepans and covers ; 1 agate hand basin ; 1 six-quart 
agate stewpan and cover ; 1 four-quart agate stewpan and cover ; 
20 tin measuring cups, three part ; 20 tin measuring cups, four 
part ; 20 tin plates ; 20 round tin pans ; 20 salt boxes ; 20 pepper 
shakers ; 5 small tin saucepans ; 5 double boilers ; 1 dish drainer ; 
1 wire soap dish ; 1 soap shaker ; 1 chain dish cloth ; 1 two-quart 
tin dipper ; 1 dust pan ; 2 wire potato mashers ; 1 nest spice boxes ; 
1 two-quart can ; 1 quart measure ; 4 small bread pans ; 1 medium 
bread pan ; 2 shallow cake pans (small) ; 2 deep pie plates ; 2 
shallow pie plates ; 1 squash strainer ; 1 large pudding pan ; 2 
bread graters ; 1 meat pan ; 1 meat rack ; 2 iron muffin pans ; 
1 Scotch bowl ; 1 double wire boiler ; 1 double wire toaster ; 20 
case knives and forks ; 20 vegetable knives; carving knife and 
steel ; 20 table spoons ; 40 teaspoons ; 1 basting spoon ; 1 skimmer ; 

1 griddle cake turner ; 6 iron match boxes ; 1 sink scraper ; stove ; 
nickel teakettle ; 1 long-handled shovel ; 1 poker ; 1 lifter ; 2 gal- 
vanized-iron coal hods ; 5 French frying pans ; 1 nutmeg grater ; 

2 doughnut cutters ; 2 biscuit cutters ; 2 cooky cutters ; 4 small 
baking sheets ; 1 flour scoop ; 1 small scoop ; 1 small grocer's 
funnel ; 1 tin box for matches ; 1 flour dredger ; 2 gravy strainers ; 
1 coffee can ; 1 tea canister ; 1 tea strainer ; 1 small tea-pot ; 1 
small coffee-pot ; 1 wire spoon ; 1 flour sifter ; 2 extension strainers ; 
1 set skewers ; 1 egg beater ; 1 lemon squeezer. 



Equipment and Cost of Kindergarten and Sewing School. 

Kindergarten. — Tables, about sixteen dollars each, accommo- 
dating each eight children ; chairs, fifty cents each ; gifts, one 
set for each child. The running cost of a kindergarten of forty 
children is about thirty dollars the first year, afterwards about 
fifteen dollars. 

Sewing School. — Needles, thimbles, scissors, thread, cloth. In 
Boston the total expense for about fourteen thousand girls in the 
grammar schools is two hundred dollars per year, or about one 
and a half cents per pupil. 



Visits of Mrs. Hopkins to Schools in New York, Williman- 
tic and Springfield. 
In March, 1892, I visited the Training College for Teachers, 
Professor Adler's Workingmen's School and Mr. Hugh O'Neil's 
Grammar and Primary School, in New York City. 



272 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

In the Training College I examined the course in wood carving 
for girls, chiefly reproductions of historic ornamentation, borders, 
etc., from Egyptian, Grecian, Latin and Moorish classic designs, 
also some wood carving from plant forms. I examined also the 
wood- work for primary and lower grammar grades, to be done by 
boys and girls in the class-room with adjustable desk tops and set 
tools. I saw the work done with the knife, saw, chisel and plane 
used by children from ten to fourteen years of age, the models 
being a modification of sloyd. Some fine card-board construction 
work and some flat wood carving I observed also. 

In Professor Adler's school I especially investigated the sewing, 
embroidery, millinery and draughting systems for undergarments 
and dresses. The work done in this school is not essentially dif- 
ferent from work of the same grade in Boston schools. The 
mechanical and geometrical drawing, as well as the clay model- 
ling, were, however, particularly good. 

At Mr. O'Neil's school object drawing and clay modelling from 
objects were prominent features, and, considering the age and 
antecedents of the pupils, they were suprisingly good. Paper 
cutting and paper reproduction of geometrical forms by exact 
measurement were also excellent. Manual training had become 
a method for all branches of study in this school ; observation, 
experiment and tangible representation were required in every de- 
partment of work and thought. The children were creative and 
independent, as well as practical and apt in the use of tools and 
their hands. 

In Brooklyn, in the Pratt Institute, cookery was admirably con- 
ducted as applied science and by the actual performance of the 
art. Fine embroidery was also a noticeable element of the course. 
Modelling from casts for practice in art and sculpture, and draw- 
ing and design in color, were finely carried out. The art models 
were very complete and choice for all this work. The different 
laboratories were thoroughly equipped, and all the conditions for 
advanced work in artistic lines as well as in all the lines of science 
applied to industry were lavishly provided. 

I talked with Dr. Hailmann and Dr. Klem, during my stay in 
Brooklyn, about the manual training of the kindergarten and 
primary courses. Dr. Hailmann advocated much freedom in the 
adaptation of Froebel's occupations to the genius and demands of 
our country and the times. He thought the kindergarten should 
be so conducted as to meet the natural tastes and aptness of the 
children and the rapid growth of mental activity and of new ideas 
of this country, as distinct from Germany. Not so precisely what 
Froebel laid down for the children of his own land and time as 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 273 

what he might lay down for children now and here. Follow nature 
in the spirit in which Froebel followed it, keeping the principles of 
his philosophy in mind, and start out in new directions of industry 
and activity. Dr. Klem, on the contrary, wanted the child taught 
to work at his father's trade so as to be able to earn his living as 
soon as possible, and to begin even in the kindergarten and primary 
schools to make especially what would bring some money return, 
however small, at once, so that he could help his parents in his 
support. Dr. Hailmann emphasized the moral element in manual 
training, and proposed a plan of mutual helpfulness through the 
work of different grades of manual training, — the card-board 
boxes made by one class to be given to another class for holding 
specimens for natural science study ; the objects made in the sloyd 
classes to be given to the cooking or gardening classes or to the 
clay-modelling classes for immediate use ; the objects in clay to 
be used by the drawing classes ; the articles prepared by the sew- 
ing classes to be turned to account for carpentry or cooking classes ; 
the paper and color work of the kindergarten and primary school 
to be sent to various rooms for decorative purposes, and every- 
thing done for mutual and social good feeling, thus laying the 
foundation of social relations, and connecting every act with the 
expression of kindly feeling and utility. Dr. Hailmann also advo- 
cates the preservation of every effort of the child, however crude, 
because the child's feelings and self-respect will be injured by its 
destruction ; he deplored the habit of regarding as rubbish what 
the children had put their thought, their effort, their imagination 
and their affection into ; some way should be found to appropriate 
them to the pleasure if not the use of others. 

I talked, also, with Miss Grace Dodge of New York, whose 
connection with education and with working girls' clubs is well 
known. She is one of the trustees of the Training College for 
Teachers, was very desirous that I should see the apparatus, 
models and work of that course, and offered me every facility for 
observation. She talked of the courses suited to girls, and urged 
most seriously that the educational motive should determine the 
subjects and methods, and not the industrial or utilitarian ends. 
She thought the people should not be taxed for opportunities to 
learn trades, but that the industrial schools should be supported 
by fees or by public charity ; her great interest in the working 
girls had not changed but only confirmed this opinion, that the 
public schools should keep the educational aim uppermost in all 
their methods and departments of work ; she went so far as to 
prefer that dressmaking and cooking be left out, as they were too 
much on the side of trade teaching. Her opinion, founded on 



274 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

approved good sense and practical experience, as well as large 
opportunities of studying the industrial problem, gave great weight 
to her testimony. 

I visited the New Britain Normal and Model School, in charge 
of Mr. Carroll, who seems to have set in operation a most truly 
progressive system of training, beginning with the kindergarten 
and reaching through the normal grade. The whole work is a 
beautiful example of free natural methods. The kindergarten is 
the living spring of method and outgrowth in all departments. 
Little ones of three years form some of its classes. They have a 
sand garden in the room. Every group of twelve or fifteen has a 
special teacher, under the guidance of the kindergarten principal. 
The children of four years work with color, putting on washes 
with the brush upon a drawn outline, painting from a real object, 
e. g., leaves, flowers, a house, etc. Some of this color work was 
artistic in its breadth and harmony as well as its vivid realism. 
They painted what they saw in tint and depth as well as variety 
of color. Classes of five years were well started in literature. 
Pictures and stories of Longfellow were given them, some of his 
poems read, and they had a model of his house, a drawing of 
which they colored very nicely ; they pricked and sewed the drum 
which his father got him when a boy, and the foot-stove he carried 
for his grandmother; they cut out, tinted and mounted a profile 
of Longfellow, which was to be the frontispiece of a Longfellow 
book they were to make, in which all the reproductions of incidents 
in his life or such writings as they had heard should be presented. 
Hiawatha was begun, and they had modelled a peace-pipe, and 
were going to sew outlines of a papoose, a wigwam, a squaw, etc. 

The kindergarten children have sloyd in the shop, with the turn- 
ing saw, the file and the plane, and many of the sloyd pieces they 
did were worthy of a grammar class. They enjoyed the work 
hugely. I saw a little girl perched upon the top of the bench on 
her knees, scouring off her semicircle for a bracket with an aban- 
don of delight. The songs and games, the stick laying, block 
building and sewing were as usual, but very little pricking is 
allowed, on account of its clanger for the eyes. The games were 
rather free and more spontaneous than is possible in many kinder- 
gartens, because the children were mostly from cultivated homes 
and knew how to play, and there were many more teachers than 
in an ordinary kindergarten. But the prettiest feature of all 
was the dancing ; several dances with correct steps and form are 
carried on in the most spontaneous and graceful way by teachers 
and children with great freedom and life. It was a beautiful 
sight. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 275 

I visited the Willimantic Normal School ; the kindergarten was 
carried on under the principal, with normal school pupils as assis- 
tants. Each class had from eight to twelve children in it. A 
class of about seven years were studying plant life. They had 
beans and peas under consideration. Each child was provided 
with a bean and a pea, also a soaked bean and pea, from which 
they could easily separate the skin ; also a bean and pea which had 
been planted a few days in a little sand garden and had begun to 
sprout. They studied their specimens with close observation, and 
then they proceeded to separate the skin from the pea and bean, 
examined it carefully, and afterwards drew on a slip of paper a 
copy of the skin of the bean and pea, and of the bean and pea 
before being soaked ; also of the bean and pea as they had ger- 
minated with the stem and root partly developed. After talking 
with the teacher about these different specimens, as to how they 
grew, and after examining and investigating the new growth of 
those which were partly germinated, the lesson was over for that 
day, bat to be continued by thorough observation of the growth of 
the plants. I afterwards saw this class take a lesson in geometri- 
cal drawing ; problems were given them which they immediately 
solved by pencil, dividers, rule and rubber. They worked out 
the problems with a great degree of interest. Little children 
four years old were taught to use the brush and a wash of color ; 
and to copy from plants placed before them. Their work showed 
a great deal of feeling, and was very neatly done. The brush was 
very neatly handled, showing that the work was practicable for 
little children under proper direction. The older classes of the 
kindergarten formed the afternoon primary school classes in the 
hands of the kindergarten principal. They were also put into 
the shop and given tools for wood-work with the benches. The 
little children seven years of age produced very neat specimens of 
sloyd work, using the cutting saw, chisel and plane. The boys ten 
to twelve years of age made excellent models of the apparatus of 
physics, also some little toys, such as the pop-gun, water wheel 
and windmill. They had working drawings of every process in 
carpentry. The children were allowed great freedom in the shop. 
Nothing they made was destroyed. It was considered very im- 
portant that they should have the advantage of making use, if they 
chose, of every piece of work they had made. In the Willimantic 
School the teachers of the normal school were constantly brought 
in contact with the pupils of every grade, so that they might 
understand their needs and conditions. Manual training was used 
as a method in connection with every method of study. 

I visited the Springfield schools, and observed the method 



276 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

formulated by Milton Bradley, which was carried on by the regu- 
lar teachers, and the knife was the only tool used. The patterns 
were simple, but seemed to be rather difficult for tbe knife alone. 
I think work done with the knife in the Springfield schools could 
be much better done with the chisel and the cutting saw, and that 
nothing was gained in manual training by the use of the knife in 
that way. The knife cutting was done at the ordinary desk by the 
pupils of the third and fourth grades, grammar school. 



Visits of Mrs. Hopkins to the Schools of Philadelphia, 
Washington and Baltimore. 
In visiting some of the schools of Philadelphia I found kinder- 
garten methods carried out in one school only ; this was the Lan- 
dreth School. Here I saw a remarkably well-organized school of 
several grades in a new and finely appointed building. Paper 
folding and cutting, clay modelling, sewing, illustrative drawing, 
object drawing and collections in elementary science were every- 
where to be observed. Cases of specimens of school work in all 
these lines, as well as the clay, wood and metal work of the manual 
training school, lined the walls of the main corridor, and cabinets 
of specimens adorned the teachers' attractive room. In every 
school-room two housekeepers were detailed each week from the 
class, whose duty it was to distribute and clear away tools and 
material, wait upon visitors, and attend to the machinery of the 
room in all respects without special direction, thus relieving the 
teacher and the class from waste of time and energy, and at the same 
time training the members of the class in turn to look after the 
domestic appointments of the room, and carry a little independent 
responsibility ; this plan had a very good effect on the conduct of 
the room and of individuals. Housekeepers for the school were 
detailed in the same way ; these attended to all general notices and 
announcements, to the ringing of the bell for opening and closing 
the school, for recess and all general exercises, also to the setting 
of a table and serving a lunch for the teachers at noon in the 
teachers' room, as well as to putting all things in order after it 
Everything moved easily and like clock-work, and the practica 
exercise of housekeeping was a capital opportunity in and applica 
tion of domestic training. The work in manual training was excel 
lently graded, although the drawing was rather the weak spot 
Geographical modelling in sand was rapidly and accurately done ; 
as a sample of that work, the United States was constructed physi- 
cally before our eyes on a large table. The school seemed to be 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 277 

an advanced and special effort toward the adoption of kindergarten 
methods in the various grades, and, like some of our Boston schools, 
awaiting the coming up of the slow majority. The paper work is 
about the same as in primary grades in Boston. 

Later I visited the manual training school for boys, which is 
about equivalent to shops for boys in the North Bennet Street, 
Jamaica Plain and Roxbury manual training rooms, but carried on 
into metal work and electricity, as well as more advanced car- 
pentry. The literary work in this school was as largely by labora- 
tory methods as practicable. Maps, charts, in fact, historical 
illustration in every form, was a prominent feature. Everything 
in manual training was done from working drawings made by the 
pupil. Specimens of graphic representations of historical study 
from the class room showed facility in design and execution, and 
apprehension of the historical facts and spirit. The buildings and 
accommodations were contracted and meagre, the boys very much 
crowded, and no appearance of luxury, or even of thorough con- 
venience, was noticed ; yet all the boys were industrious, happy 
and successful. 

In Washington I spent about two hours in examining collections 
of school work in the superintendent's office, such as were ex- 
hibited at the Conference on Manual Training, in Boston, from the 
schools of Washington. Every branch of manual training men- 
tioned in the Boston Course of Study was represented, and was of 
excellent quality. 

I visited many schools of all grades, and saw that manual train- 
ing methods were thoroughly engrafted on the schools of Wash- 
ington, or, rather, incorporated into them, for the work was in 
every grade, in logical sequence, thorough operation, mortised 
carefully both as to grade of school and kind of work, and com- 
pletely inter-related with all the school work, making a homogene- 
ous and philosophical as well as practical scheme of education for 
the public schools. The cookery rooms were, with the carpentry 
rooms, in every large school. The equipment was not quite as 
complete as that in Boston, but the methods appeared the same. 
The primary and grammar schools are without exception working 
out the scheme of manual training in advanced kindergarten lines, 
and the high school for girls and boys is a remarkable develop- 
ment of the same idea ; the botanical, geological and biological, 
as well as mineral, physical and chemical laboratories are most in- 
clusive and heterogeneous in their outlook, as well as harmonious 
in their purpose and method. Music and art, as well as some of 
the arts and industries now so commonly pursued by both young 
men and women for a livelihood, are also open to the pupils. 



278 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

"Washington has a complete system of manual training in its public 
schools, and I do not see, on a casual investigation, any reason to 
doubt its uniform success. 

At Baltimore I saw the cookery instruction department for 
nurses in the Johns Hopkins Hospital. I was very much im- 
pressed with the thorough and finished appointments of the whole 
place, and the scientific and complete dietary course for the sick- 
room. The neat uniform of the nurses and cookery instructor 
was very suggestive. This course is one of closely applied science 
and more hygienic preparation of food than is followed in ordinary 
cookery schools. 



Mrs. Hopkins' Account of Manual Training Exhibit, London, 

July, 1892. 

Among the articles presented in this exhibit were sewing on 
card-board, canvas and coarse linen ; macrame work ; weaving in 
straw, worsted and twine for nets, fringes, rugs, baskets, etc. ; 
knitting and crocheting for hoods, mittens, skirts ; long, heavy 
stockings for deep-sea fishermen ; undershirts and drawers for the 
ragged-schools ; wash-cloths ; towels and other useful articles ; as 
well as many pretty things for gifts made by children five, six 
and seven years of age. Practice pieces, patches, darns, mends, 
samplers and button-holes, were all shown ; also a few dresses, — 
some quite elaborate, — feather-stitching and flannel embroidery 
in the advanced classes ; but the making of garments was not the 
most prominent feature of the sewing classes. Some sloyd work 
was exhibited, as well as constructive card-board work for use and 
beauty, geometric solids and other constructive work, — quite full 
and complete. The inlaid work of colored paper in symmetrical 
designs was very fine. Designs colored by wash and brush held a 
large place. The exhibit in color and drawing from the pupil 
teachers and from selected pupils of the advanced classes under 
specially trained teachers from South Kensington and other art 
schools was a noticeable feature of merit. The work in object 
drawing, with nature drawing, some of it by the brush alone, was 
excellent. 

On the whole, the exhibit was not essentially different from 
those with which we are familiar ki this country, and differed only 
in extent and variety from that of the Liverpool schools. A large 
preponderance of useful articles was to be seen in this exhibit. 

The work in color is carried on under the supervision of an ex- 
pert scientist and artist, who acts as one of the four assistants to 
the director of drawing in the schools. He attended me in exam- 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 279 

ining this department. The work in drawing was of a very high 
order, and related to every department of study. It is not only a 
method of expression and representation, but of experimentation, 
being connected with laboratory work in the sciences as well as 
with mathematical and mechanical work. 

On visiting London I obtained an interview with Mr. Diggle of 
the school board. He offered me every courtesy, and detailed a 
member of the board, Mr. McWilliams, to accompany me to repre- 
sentative classes and schools in manual training departments. 
We first called at the St. Berner Street Board School, on the spot 
where the opium joint described in "Edwin Droocl " stood. We 
visited first the old school building, which was an old rice mill ; 
the tall mill still stood there ; the ground floor is now used as a 
storeroom. I saw a cart loading up with apparatus for drawing 
tables and large T-squares. We went up stairs and visited the 
cookery class of Jewish girls ; the teacher was giving a demonstra- 
tion lesson on a fruit pie ; only a gas stove was in use. After this 
part of the lesson, which took one hour, the class was divided, one- 
half attending the demonstration lesson and the other half writing 
it for an hour, and the next hour vice versa ; the lesson was three 
hours long, — each child has sixty lessons. The girls are eleven 
and twelve years old. The laundry room we next visited was 
large, with closets, boiler, tubs, ironing tables and stove with flat 
irons. A similar class to the cooking class was receiving a lesson 
from the black-board in washing cretonnes and colored cloths. 
After this I saw the girls washing at the tubs, one tub being fitted 
for washing colored articles, and the other for white silk scarfs or 
handkerchiefs which the girls had brought from home. I saw 
some of their laundered work also, cuffs and collars, — very good ; 
the girls evidently enjoyed the work very much. 

We then went to the new school-house near by, — Berner Street 
School. It was a fine large building, with well-lighted rooms, 
sliding partitions largely of glass, big halls and play-grounds for 
boys on the top of the building. We visited a sloyd class taught 
by the son of the head master ; it showed very good work for the 
first year, — in operation only since the previous October. They 
used knife, plane, saw, etc., but the models were those in use in 
Mr. Larsson's class in Boston. 

The pupils of the school are nearly all Jews, Russian or Polish, 
some German, who the master said were much the most intelligent. 
All have to be taught the English language, and much the same 
means are used as in the Eliot School, — in fact, when I described 
that way, the master said it was exactly his way, and he thought 
he had invented it. However, I saw the boys spelling small words 



280 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

on the black-board in an old-fashioned way, without knowing what 
they meant or how to use them ; then they learn to use a book and 
write words, and up in the higher grade to read fairly well. This 
was not in accordance with the method described. 

All through the school were pictures, cabinets of science objects, 
collected by pupils and teachers with some help from a school fund. 
One teacher showed me her schedule of object lessons, — much 
like ours in the lower grades. Sewing is part of the girls' work. 
The boys come for extra time in sloyd. The master complained 
that as soon as the boys got up a little way many left to go to a 
Jewish school which gave them some advantages and was privately 
endowed, or else they went to America. Some of the teachers 
were Jewish ; the teacher of the upper class was selected in order 
to conduct their religious exercises suitably. The cookery classes 
also have special provision for meeting the Jewish code with re- 
gard to food. 

We went to the Highway School for girls, close to the scene of 
the worst White Chapel murders. It is a fine new building, about 
five years old. The care-taker lives in a house on the premises, 
and opens the gate to visitors ; he had a beautiful show of potted 
plants in bloom, with pretty shells near the opening of the yard. 
All the girls were out at play, the mistresses with them. 

I visited a manual training exhibit of the London board schools, 
and there met by appointment Inspector George Ricks, who waited 
upon me and explained in detail every part of the work, beginning 
with kindergarten occupations and proceeding through every grade 
of school and every department of manual training. 



Visits of Mrs. Hopkins to the Schools of Paris. 

I called at the office of the Minister of Instruction, and, pre- 
senting my letters signed by Governor Russell and U. S. Commis- 
sioner W. T. Harris, obtained a " permit" to visit the schools in 
the department of the Seine, for the purpose of investigating the 
manual training courses. 

I went to the Sophie Germain Superior School for girls, and saw 
embroidery, millinery, flower-making, drawing, design in water 
color and dressmaking, tailoring and corset-making, all carried on 
in one building, and more extensively than with us. The dresses 
were fitted to lay figures, cut, basted, sewed, pressed, trimmed, 
etc. ; fashion and artistic decoration were studied. In the art 
department costumes of various ages and countries were studied, 
and represented by drawing aud color. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 281 

I visited the professional manual training schools of Poitou 
and Fondary, of the last of which I enclose programmes. I saw 
kindergarten work like our own, a few varieties being added, more 
in the direction of art than industry. The sewing consisted mainly 
of the elements of common sewing, on small pieces or samplers. 

I saw laundry work and cookery, the former being thoroughly 
attended to, the latter somewhat meagre. 

The history of art and study of costumes of all nations and ages 
was a part of the course in art instruction. 

The kindergarten course seemed in the main what is familiar to 
us. The weaving was more with worsteds than paper, and orna- 
mented by embroidery, with marked attention to color and beauty 
of design. Laundry work as well as cookery was carried on by 
girls of about twelve years of age. 



Report of Mrs. Hopkins on Liverpool Manual Training 

Schools. 

On reaching Liverpool I called upon Mr. E. W. B. M. Hance, 
clerk of the school board, and presented my letters from Governor 
Russell and from U. S. Commissioner Harris. 

I first visited the Addison Street Day Industrial School, under 
the direction of Miss Tarry, a certified mistress of the board. 
This is a mixed school, for children of five years and upwards who 
shall be committed by a magistrate as neglected, or recommended 
by the school board. The school is open from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m., 
for compulsory attendance, from 6 to 8 a.m., for voluntary attend- 
ance, and on Sundays for voluntary attendance from 9 to 5.30. 
Secular instruction is given four hours per day, except Saturday, 
when it is three hours. The apparatus for teaching seemed as 
well provided as in the regular elementary schools. The maps 
and pictures, shops and tools and all the school-rooms were well 
equipped. The baths, lavatories, swimming tanks, barbers' rooms 
and disinfecting rooms were amply supplied according to the best 
sanitary regulations. Each child washes face, hands, arms, chest, 
legs and feet, with his own basin, cloth and towel, every day before 
9 a.m., under supervision. Each child is served with three good 
meals per day. Religious service is held each day from 9 to 9.30 
and from 5.40 to 6 p.m., denominational preferences being re- 
spected. The industrial training occupies half the day, and 
consists of mat making (rope), simple joining, wood chopping, 
netting, sack making, paper-bag making, laundry work, plain sew- 
ing, knitting and darning, dish washing, scrubbing, etc. 

Only the superintendent may inflict or order punishment. 



282 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Admission is either voluntary on the part of the parents, or with 
a recommendation by the school board for children too poor to 
attend regular schools (ill-fed, ill-clothed and ill-cared for), or by 
license from a certified industrial school. 

I also visited two certified industrial schools, one for boys and 
one for girls, at Northumberland Terrace, both established within 
ten years by Dean Porson. These schools take children committed 
by a magistrate for slight offences, or found in bad company, or 
cruelly treated and of vicious parentage, from brothels and haunts 
of crime ; and they are taken care of night and day, the school 
clothing and feeding, instructing and training them in useful occu- 
pations. The children are taught to do all the work of the house, 
make their own clothes, boots and articles for sale, and to do plain 
carpentry. They are not allowed to leave the school except in 
charge of teachers or officers. When they are old enough they are 
discharged, or put to trades or other work to learn an honest liv- 
ing. They are sent away by the emigration act whenever an oppor- 
tunity is offered which can be approved by the managers. The 
average cost of the school is sixty dollars a head, per year. The 
girls' school is in charge of a mistress, and the boys' of a master. 
The appointments for bathing are about the same as in the day 
industrial schools. 

I saw boys at work in the laundry, kitchen, dining rooms, print- 
ing room, carpentry shop, sewing their own clothes, making their 
own and the girls' boots, making mats, bags, bundling sticks which 
they had sawed and split, scouring, playing games and studying. 
They looked healthy, happy, and in no way different from children 
of better circumstances, except in their uniform. The superin- 
tendent said they were not bad lads ; he thought them as much 
inclined to do right as any other lads, but in their own homes it 
was impossible. District visitors and school visitors, acting some- 
what like truant officers and somewhat as missionaries, keep the 
school supplied with pupils. 

At the girls' school I saw them all at dinner. They rose as we 
entered the room. They looked remarkably healthy and quite con- 
tent. I saw the clothes and sewing of the girls, and saw their 
dormitories (as also the boys'). Each child had *a bed, about 
twenty-five beds in a room, well aired and lighted ; a superintend- 
ent's room adjoining each dormitory, and a glass window between. 
The girls had blue flannel gowns and heavy linen aprons, a Sunday 
dress and hat as well as a common one. They make all their own 
clothes. 

The wood-working shops were furnished with tools and benches 
like those in Boston, and carpentry exercises were taught. I did 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 283 

not see anything like sloyd. The sanitary arrangements were most 
noticeable. Constant bathing and perfect regulations for clean- 
liness both of person and surroundings are secured. Swimming 
tanks are in daily use in the boys' school. 

I visited two of the elementary schools of Liverpool, in company 
with Mr. Hance and Mr. Hewett, who is director of the science 
work of Liverpool board schools. The science work in the ele- 
mentary schools is in charge of Director Hewitt (author of various 
treatises on elementary object lessons and science, and recently of 
a book on manual training) and of four assistants who are under 
his constant training, and who go into the schools and give lessons 
to the classes with the help and observation of the regular teacher, 
who also has to carry on the lesson at other times as he has shown 
her how and provided the materials or apparatus. The lessons to 
which I listened by two of the assistant directors were on physi- 
cal phenomena, to which I think most attention is given in the 
science course. I saw no evidence of observation in plant and 
animal life, except in some potted plants in the school-rooms or 
passages, and in the kindergarten occupations, where some repre- 
sentations of plant forms were used from which to teach the names 
of different parts of the flowers. The science work is continued 
for boys of the higher standards in a chemical laboratory, as an 
incentive for boys to remain at school or to come in from outside ; 
and evening classes of the same sort are provided for those who 
have left school. I understood, however, that the assistants had 
a peripatetic museum which was falling into disuse ; the apparatus 
for physical experiments was very simple, and easily obtained in 
almost any school. 

The infant classes were to a large extent taught by kindergarten 
methods ; all the kindergarten material was conspicuous, and the 
children were engaged in the occupations. The tables were 
arranged like the ordinary school desks, but with the seats made 
to drop to order, so as to give standing-room ; the tops of the 
desks were lined in squares, and the slates also for drawing designs 
in straight lines. Drawing of this kind was going on, as w T ell as 
tablet laying, bead stringing, block building, crayon coloring of 
outlined forms, paper mat weaving, worsted weaving on pins in 
various forms of life, paper cutting and folding, drawing of geo- 
metric forms, cutting of the same in paper and card-board, lead- 
ing up to flat wood-cutting in these forms, paper construction of 
forms of life, sewing on card-board, canvas, heavy linen and com- 
mon cloth, knitting and embroidery, samplers and ornamental 
work, clothing, etc., as in our schools. All this work was admi- 
rably graded and connected, so that it was hard to say where the 



284 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

kindergarten glided. It all combined to lead up to the shop work 
and science work, to geography and higher studies. They do not 
speak of " kindergartens," but only of " infant classes," and the 
numbers and reading are all taught by these methods. They do not 
seem to have the " games " as a part of the course. They call the 
shop work and paper and card-board work ''applied drawing;" 
it all seems to lead to trades rather than art. They were all set to 
work with the manual training instruction for my benefit, and it 
was linked together so completely that I could hardly find the join- 
ing places. 

One school of the two I visited was in charge of a Scotchman 
as head master ; he wore a cap and gown, and seemed to be a very 
strong man in all respects, though a young man. They had a large 
swimming tank in this building, which the boys use daily. They 
are trying to get the girls to use one, which they are loth to do, 
although some of the pupil assistants do so. / 

The staircases are iron, and outside the building. The plan of 
the building is quite worth a study ; sliding partitions of plate glass 
between all the rooms, so that the master can overlook many rooms 
at once, or the rooms be thrown together. The floors slope by 
steps to the teacher's desk. The windows are very large, of plate 
glass, high, and reaching to the extreme ends of the room and either 
behind or at the left of the class ; large sky-lights distribute the 
light so well that there are no dark corners, and the plate-glass 
partitions aid in carrying the light all over the building, and accus- 
toming the eye to distant sight as well as near. All the arrange- 
ments for lighting were directed by distinguished oculists. I saw 
very few pupils or teachers wearing glasses. 

The teachers giving object lessons in science or dictation lessons 
in training were doing it very well indeed, and seemed intelligent 
and refined. The pupil teachers, quite young girls, were helping 
in the kindergarten occupations and paper cutting and folding, 
also in the lessons in spelling, reading, reciting verse in concert, 
etc. They acted in a natural, unconscious way, moving about 
among the aisles and affording substantial assistance. Mr. Hewitt 
said they grew up into teachers very naturally, getting accustomed 
to the children and sympathizing with them, learning insensibly 
how to appeal to them and guide them. 

The playgrounds were ample. The pictures, charts and maps 
were such as we see in our kindergartens and other grades. The 
Scotch head master had cabinets of manufacturers' material in 
cotton, wool and silk, also some other things to illustrate geo- 
graphical products, but no more than some Boston schools have. 

There is used in these elementary schools a method of "cross 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 285 

classification," so that a child may have one study with one grade 
and another with another grade, according as he shall have passed 
certain examinations which he has chosen by a liberty of selection 
which retards or advances him in certain subjects. 

Drawing is taught to both boys and girls in the mixed schools, 
and is compulsory. 

I visited one of several manual training centres or shops for 
wood-work, which is also called " applied drawing." The series 
of plates or models was very nearly like that in the North Bennet 
Street or the Jamaica Plain School ; exercises for practice and 
mastery and. objects for use was the educational motive. Some 
sloyd models are introduced towards the end of the course, for 
training in forming a judgment by sight and touch rather than by 
measurement, as in most of the course. Mastery of the tools and 
of the exercises is the object, and creates an interest which assures 
a boy's voluntary continuance in the shop and petitions to get 
extra time. Every boy in the board schools receives the instruc- 
tion from ten to twelve years of age, for two or three hours a week 
for two years. Some voluntary schools send classes on payments 
of fees. The series of lessons brings in models of physical appa- 
ratus at the close. The boys are generally from the sixth standard. 
The head master of this centre is a young man, Mr. Pierson, who 
was a certificated teacher, and then studied manual training. He 
is quite opposed to sloyd. 

The University College trains teachers for the manual instruc- 
tion. I visited this institution, saw the wood-working shop with 
exercises in mechanical construction, mortises, joints, bevels, use 
of tools, working drawings, which are used in every exercise in 
the manual training throughout the school course ; the engines, 
testing apparatus, electrical apparatus and museums of various 
patents started. It is a new institution, and will turn out thor- 
oughly trained manual training teachers from the graduates of the 
training colleges, for the elementary schools. This completes the 
manual training course for the schools of Liverpool. 

The cookery training school was closed, but Mr. Hance took 
me to the training class at the Convent of Notre Dame, — the best 
one, he said, in Liverpool. The Sister Superior showed me the 
tables, gas stoves and all the furnishings, — marble-topped tables, 
porcelain jars, tiled floor and glazed tiled walls, — very nice and 
clean. I saw no class. The Sisters were very courteous and hos- 
pitable, giving me a nice lunch. They showed me the sewing, 
which was fine, some of the embroidery beautiful. The knitting 
was conspicuous. There seemed to be no coldness between the 
Catholic and Protestant schools. The Sister Superior was a noble 



286 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

woman, with very sweet manners, and consulted with Mr. Hance 
on many points of mutual interest. I told her about the Boston 
cookery schools, and how much had been done by Mr. Murphy ; 
she seemed delighted with the idea of the horse-shoe tables and a 
gas stove for each pupil. 

Mr. Hance conducted me to two of the entrance examinations 
of candidates for the Training College. It is an examination of 
nearly a week ; I was furnished with copies of completed papers ; 
it is conducted by government inspectors, and is much more diffi- 
cult than our entrance examinations for the normal school ; it pre- 
supposed some knowledge of the science of education. Only about 
forty out of several hundred were to be admitted to the Liverpool 
College, which is the best ; the age of the candidates was from 
eighteen to twenty-one. 

There are nineteen cookery centres, three teachers, eight hun- 
dred and eighty-four girls in classes this year, four standards six 
and seven. 

Cricket and foot-ball clubs have been introduced, and matches 
arranged by the masters in the principal schools for boys. 

The cookery centres of tbe Liverpool board schools are in an 
ordinary class room, adapted to the purposes of cookery by the 
use of movable desk tops and hinged seats let down, and a cabinet 
for storing utensils and materials ; gas stoves only are in use, and 
the whole equipment is very inexpensive. 

The tools used for wood- work are the common carpenters' tools, 
and not the knife. 

The manual training centres or shops for wood-work were estab- 
lished in very inexpensive quarters, one large room with mere frame 
of building and patent iron roof ; they w r ere set up in haste as a 
temporary and cheap provision for what was regarded as an experi- 
ment, but, the buildings proving all that is needed and as good for 
the purpose as any, it is proposed to make them permanent. The 
University College also has expended a comparatively slight amount 
on its quarters, but endowed its chairs very generously. 



RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE ADDI- 
SON STREET CERTIFIED DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LIVERPOOL. 

1. The school shall be a day industrial school, within the meaning 
of section 16 of the elementary education act, 1876, for the reception 
and detention of children committed by a Liverpool magistrate's war- 
rant, under sections 12 and 16 of that act, and for the reception, under 
the provisions of sub-section 4 of the last-mentioned section, of children 
under attendance orders, or without an order of a court. 

2. The school being provided by the school board, shall, under the 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 287 

supervision of that body, be managed by a committee of the board (or 
by such body of managers as the board may from time to time appoint 
under the provisions of section 15 of the elementary education act 
1870), hereinafter called the " managers. " 

3. The school shall be open for the reception of children of all 
denominations. 

4. No child shall be received into the school under five years of age. 

5. The school shall be open for the reception of children of either 
sex, and shall be conducted as a mixed school. 

6. No child shall be received into the school who is incapable, by 
mental or physical infirmity, of being benefited by the instruction and 
discipline of the school, or who is suffering from any loathsome or 
infectious disease. 

7. The number of children received into the school at any one time 
shall not exceed two hundred and fifty, exclusive of infants between five 
and seven years of age. The school board may, at any future time, with 
the concurrence of the inspector of day industrial schools, authorize the 
admission of some larger number, provided that it shall in no case exceed 
such a number as will allow in the school-room and day rooms ten square 
and one hundred cubic feet for each child present therein. 

8. The staff of the school shall consist of the following officers, 
viz. : — 

(1) A certificated mistress as superintendent ; 

(2) One assistant mistress ; or such further number of assistant mis- 
tresses as the managers may, with the consent of the school board, from 
time to time consider necessary for the due instruction of the number of 
children in the school ; 

(3) A male caretaker, who shall be required to superintend the indus- 
trial occupations of the boys ; 

(4) A woman to act as cook ; and 

(5) Such further assistants (if any) as the managers may, from time 
to time, with the consent of the school board, prescribe. 

9. The superintendent shall have sole charge of the school, and shall 
be responsible for the good management thereof, and for the due execu- 
tion of all regulations relating thereto ; for this purpose she shall have 
control of all the other officers. She shall also be responsible for the 
quantities and qualities of all supplies received for the school, and for 
the proper application thereof. 

10. The appointment and discharge of officers shall — subject to the 
confirmation of the school board, and, in the case of the appointment of 
the superintendent, to the approval of the inspector of day industrial 
schools — rest solely with the managers ; but the superintendent may 
suspend any officer for misconduct until she can report the facts to the 
managers. 

11. On week days the school hours shall be from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. ; but 
the school shall be opened at 6 a.m., to receive children who may come, 
or be brought, at any time between that hour and 8 a.m. 

12. The caretaker shall be in attendance at 5.45 a.m., and shall have 
the school ready for the reception of children by 6 o'clock. All children 



288 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

arriving at the school before 8 o'clock shall until that hour be under his 
control, and he shall be responsible for their good conduct. 

13. The teachers shall be in attendance at the school at 7.45 A.M., and, 
except when in charge of children taken out in pursuance of Rule 20, 
shall not leave the school during school hours without the special per- 
mission of one of the managers, or, in urgent cases, of the superintendent. 

13a. The superintendent shall have power to grant temporary leave 
of absence to any scholar under either of the following circumstances, 
viz. : (a) the serious bodily ailment of the child ; (6) the existence of 
some infectious disease at the child's home ; (c) temporary absence of 
the child from home ; (d) the sickness of some member of the family 
upon whom the child is required to attend ; (e) keeping house in the 
temporary absence of the mother on exceptional and urgent occasions ; 
provided that in every case the particulars of the leave granted, and the 
reasons for it, be entered in the journal, and that the leave be not con- 
tinued beyond one fortnight without the special permission of the 
managers. 

136. The superintendent will be held responsible for the regular and 
punctual attendance of the scholars and teachers. Whenever a child is 
absent without leave, the superintendent shall inform the parent thereof, 
shall inquire by personal visitation or otherwise as to the cause of such 
absence, and shall make such record thereof as the school board or the 
managers may require. When the reasons for absence are not satis- 
factory to the superintendent, she shall immediately report the cases to 
the school board. 

14. Every child sent to the school under an order of detention, and 
every child sent under an attendance order, or under a license from a 
certified industrial school, unless it is otherwise provided in such attend- 
ance order or license, shall attend the school during the whole of the 
school hours on every week day on which the school is open. 

15. No child shall be allowed to leave the school during school hours 
without permission from the superintendent. 

16. On Sundays the school shall be open between the hours of 9 and 
5.30, for the reception of such of the children as may attend of their own 
free will. 

17. Religious instruction shall be governed by the following rules : — 

(1) Religious instruction and observances shall take place each day 
from 9 to 9.30 a.m., and from 5.40 to 6 p.m. 

(2) The ordinary religious instruction and observances shall consist 
of prayers and hymns and reading from the Bible, with such explanations 
and instructions therefrom in the principles of religion and morality as 
are suited to the capacity of children ; and in the selection of such prayers 
and hymns, and in explanations and instruction from the Bible, no attempt 
shall be made to attach children to, or to detach them from, any partic- 
ular denomination. 

(3) No child shall attend the religious instruction or observances, or 
shall be taught the catechism or tenets of any religion, to which his 
parents or guardians object, or other than that to which he is stated in 
the order of detention or attendance order to belong. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 289 

(4) With regard to children who are specified in. the order of deten- 
tion or attendance order as belonging to any particular religious per- 
suasion, the managers shall, so far as practicable, make arrangements 
that such children shall, during the times set apart for religious instruc- 
tion, attend religious instruction or observances conducted voluntarily 
by ministers of such persuasions, or by such responsible teachers of the 
school or other persons as are delegated by such ministers with the 
approval of the board. 

(5) While any religious instruction or observance is going on, none 
of the scholars or teachers shall be employed in any other manner in the 
same room. 

(6) Facilities shall be provided for special religious instruction being 
given at stated times on Sunday, by volunteers, to such of the children 
of their respective churches as of their own free will may attend such 
instruction. 

18. The secular instruction shall consist of reading, spelling, writing, 
dictation, arithmetic, vocal music and drill ; and, as far as practicable, 
of the elements of grammar, geography and English history. It shall 
be given on Saturday for three, and on each other week day for four, 
hours. 

19. The industrial training shall consist : — 

For the boys : Of such industrial occupations, including mat making, 
simple joinery, wood chopping, sack making, netting, paper bag mak- 
ing, etc., as the board or the managers may from time to time consider 
practicable and desirable. 

For the girls : Of plain sewing, cleaning and other domestic work. 

20. The children shall be allowed two hours daily for recreation and 
exercise, and may be taken out for exercise beyond the boundaries of 
the school. 

21. On week days all the children, and on Sundays such of them as 
may voluntarily attend, shall be supplied with three meals a day, of plain, 
wholesome food, according to a dietary to be approved by the inspector 
of day industrial schools. 

22. The hours for religious and secular instruction, industrial work, 
recreation, meals, etc., shall be regulated by a time table, to be approved 
by the inspector of day industrial schools, and to be hung up in a con- 
spicuous position in the school-room. 

23. The superintendent shall alone have the power of punishing or 
ordering the punishment of children in the school, and shall be directly 
responsible for all punishments inflicted. These shall be of the follow- 
ing descriptions only : — 

(a) Forfeiture of rewards and privileges, including recreation. 
(6) Reduction in quantity or quality of food, — but no child shall be 
deprived of two meals in succession. 

(c) Confinement in a separate, but not dark, room during the school 
hours. 

(d) In the case of boys, moderate personal correction bj T whipping 
with a common school rod or cane, and not to exceed at any one time 
five strokes in the case of a boy under nine years of age, or nine in the 



290 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

case of a boy above that age.* No punishment for any particular offence 
to extend beyond the day on which it is inflicted. 

All punishments, with the fault committed, shall be recorded in a book 
kept for the purpose, to be laid before the managers at their meetings, 
and to be open to the inspector for examination. 

24. The superintendent shall keep a journal, — to be laid before the 
managers at their meetings, — in which she shall record all occurrences 
of importance ; and shall also keep or cause to be kept the following 
books and records, viz. : — 

(a) A register of admissions, containing a record of the date of admis- 
sion, name, age, residence and religious denomination of each child 
received into the school, and whether it was admitted under a voluntary 
arrangement, a license from a certified industrial school, an attendance 
order or an order of detention, in the last case also specifying whether 
the original proceedings were taken under sub-section 1 or under sub- 
section 2 of section 11 of the elementary education act (187C) ; also such 
particulars concerning its parentage, previous education and circum- 
stances as may be found requisite. 

(6) Registers of daily attendance, distinguishing therein the children 
according as they are received under voluntary arrangements, attendance 
orders or orders of detention, and in the last case whether the original 
proceedings were taken under sub-section 1 or under sub-section 2 of 
section 11 of the elementary education act (1876). 

(c) A punishment book, in which all punishments and privations 
shall be recorded, as required by Rule 23. 

(d) A stock and store book, containing particulars of all materials 
and provisions ordered and received for the school, and the manner in 
which they have respectively been consumed ; also of all orders for work 
executed by the school. 

(e) A license register, containing particulars of the name, address and 
school attendance of each child placed out on license, together with the 
dates of the license, its renewal, and, where necessary, its revocation. 

25. The school shall at all times be open to the inspector of day in- 
dustrial schools. Members and authorized officers of the board may 
visit and inspect the school and examine the books at any convenient 
time. Parents of children in the school may, if necessary, commimicate 
personally with the superintendent on Monday morning before ten 
o'clock. With these exceptions, no visitor shall be allowed to enter the 
school during school hours without the written authority of the clerk to 
the board, of one of the managers, of a member of the board, or, in ur- 
gent cases, of the superintendent. (This rule does not apply to trades- 
people or customers coming to the school on business.) 

2Q. The superintendent shall regularly and punctually forward to the 
inspector of day industrial schools the following notices and returns, 
viz. : — 



* The superintendent shall not be at liberty to punish any child by both corporal 
punishment and confinement in a separate room at the same time, or for the same 
offence. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, 291 

(a) Notice on a form to be approved by the inspector immediately 
after the fact of the admission of each child, with information as to 
whether such admission is under an order of detention, an attendance 
order or a voluntary arrangement, and as to the period for which the 
child is received. 

(6) Notice on a form to be approved by the inspector at the end of 
each month of any child having died, left the district, been transferred 
to another day industrial school, committed to an ordinary industrial 
school, placed out on license or allowed to be absent on leave. 

(c) The registers of attendances duly vouched by herself and the 
managers at the end of each quarter, and at such other times as the in- 
spector may require ; also at the end of each quarter an account for the 
maintenance of the scholars in the school, distinguishing committed 
from voluntary cases, and specifying against each child's name the num- 
ber of attendances it made during the quarter. 

(d) In the month of January in each year a full statement, vouched 
by the managers, of the receipts and expenditure of the school for the 
year ending on the 31st of December immediately preceding, and show- 
ing all outstanding debts and liabilities. 

(e) Such other returns and accounts as the inspector may from time 
to time require. 

27 All books and journals of the school shall be open to the inspec- 
tor for examination, and if he think it necessary he may examine any 
teacher employed in the instruction of the children. 

28. No officer of the school shall receive any gratuities from the 
children or their parents, or from tradespeople, customers or any other 
persons, on pain of immediate dismissal. 

29. No, officer shall become security for any person, or engage in 
any loan transaction with any other officer of the board. 

30. The officers shall maintain the discipline and order of the school, 
and carefully attend to the instruction and training of the children in 
conformity with these rules and with the provisions of the order in coun- 
cil of the twentieth day of March, 1877. The children shall comply with 
these rules and obey the officers of the school ; and any wilful neglect 
or refusal to so comply or obey shall, on the part of any child sent to the 
school under an order of detention, be deemed to be an offence against 
the aforesaid order in council within the meaning of section 28 thereof. 

31. These rules and regulations shall not be added to, repealed or 
altered in whole or in part except with the consent of the secretary of 
state, and at a meeting of the school board convened by a notice stating 
such business, and sent in accordance with the regulations for the time 
being in force for the transaction and management of the business of 
the board ; but the school board, or, with their authority, the managers, 
may from time to time lay down special rules for regulating any matter 
not provided for in these rules, provided that such special rules shall not 
be in any way inconsistent with these rules, and shall be recorded in a 
book to be submitted to the inspector for approval on the occasion of his 
annual or other visits. W. Inglis, 

H.M. Inspector of Reformatory and Industrial Schools. 
August 18, 1891. 



292 MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Certified Industrial Schools (One for Boys and Oxe for Girls). 

Under the provisions of the elementary education act (1876), the duty 
is thrown upon the school board of putting into force the provisions of 
the industrial schools act (1866) and its amending acts. In addition to 
the services which can be rendered in this respect by their ordinary 
visiting staff, the board have, in conjunction with the Society for the 
Repression of Immorality, appointed two officers whose whole time is 
almost exclusively devoted to this work ; while a third officer has been 
set apart for the investigation of the cases of all children brought by 
other agencies before the magistrates, under the terms of the industrial 
schools acts, — for a large number of cases is brought before the mag- 
istrates by the police, or by the officers of the Society for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Children, and a considerable number, principally orphans, 
through the actions of private individuals. 

On the 29th of September, 1888, there were in certified industrial 
schools 671 Liverpool children, viz., 429 boys and 242 girls. Through 
the combined action of the agencies before mentioned, and of the board's 
own officers, 769 children, viz., 562 boys and 207 girls, have been brought 
before the magistrates during the past three years, under the provisions 
of the industrial schools acts ; and 375, viz., 220 boys and 155 girls, com- 
mitted. Of this number, 141 were committed for frequenting the com- 
pany of prostitutes, 69 for begging, 67 for stealing and 27 for vagrancy, 
while 71 (mostly orphans) were committed as " destitute." In addition 
to these children, 167, viz., 103 boys and 64 girls, were, during the same 
period, committed to industrial schools under the elementary education 
act of 1876. 

Since the 29th of September, 1888, 278 boys and 149 girls nave been 
discharged, and of this number 105 boys and 54 girls were licensed 
before the completion of their terms of detention. On the 29th of Sep- 
tember, 1891, there were 786 Liverpool children, viz., 474 boys and 312 
girls, in residence at these schools. 



Industrial Schools Act, 1891. — Emigration. 

Towards the close of last session a short but very important act was 
passed by Parliament, empowering the managers of industrial schools, 
with the consent of the children themselves and of the secretary of state, 
to dispose, by way of emigration, of children committed to those schools ; 
towards the cost of which method of disposition school boards are, under 
the general powers conferred on them by section 27 of the elementary 
education act (1870), enabled to make contribution. With regard to the 
provisions of the new act, — which are in accordance with representa- 
tions made, on more than one occasion, by the present board and by their 
predecessors in office, — the board have been in communication with the 
managers of the various industrial schools to which Liverpool children 
have been committed, but as yet no definite scheme for exercising the 
new powers has been prepared. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 293 



Work of Compulsion. 

The visiting staff employed by the board at the present time consists 
of thirty-five male and twenty-one female permanent, and eleven male 
and one female temporary, visitors, acting under the direction of a super- 
intendent, assisted by four inspectors. The permanent staff shows an 
increase of one male visitor upon the corresponding numbers employed 
at the close of the last board. 

This staff is divided into two main parts : district visitors, of whom 
there are sixteen, and school visitors, of whom there are forty-six, the 
remaining six visitors being detailed for special work, — two in con- 
nection with the enforcement of the industrial schools acts, two with 
prosecutions under the education acts, one with the payment of school 
fees and one acting as assistant inspector. 

The duty of the district visitors is to secure that all children of school 
age are enrolled at some school, and for this purpose : — 

(a) To keep, as far as possible, a correct register of all the families 
in their respective districts ; 

(b) To visit, and, where necessary, to take proceedings in respect of 
children found to be not attending school ; and 

(c) To keep a record of children approaching five years of age, and 
to see that they go to school on attaining that age. 

The register is kept up by means of a house-to-house visitation, which 
is conducted continuously throughout the year, and a complete round of 
which is made in about three months. 

The duty of the school visitors is : — 

{a) To secure the regular attendance of children whose names are on 
the rolls of schools : 

(6) To trace, as far as possible, all children who leave the schools 
under their charge ; and 

(c) To notify to the district visitors all changes of residence coming 
under their notice. 

Until August, 1889, the uniform practice was for the school visitors to 
be supplied with particulars with regard to the attendance of children 
once each fortnight, with a view to their visiting those who were irregu- 
lar ; and this practice still obtains in respect to the great majority of the 
schools of the town. In that month, however, ten temporary visitors, 
since increased to twelve, were appointed, to enable the experiment to 
be tried of obtaining the information and visiting the irregular children 
weekly, in connection with some thirty-six schools situated in localities 
in which the attendance was least satisfactory. The experiment was 
originally made for one year, with the result that in the schools selected 
the average attendance rose from a little over seventy-six per cent, to 
very nearly seventy-eight per cent. It was accordingly decided to con- 
tinue the experiment, first, for a further six months, and subsequently 
for an additional period of twelve months, not yet expired. 

In the discharge of the important and responsible duties devolving 
upon them in connection with the exercise of their compulsory powers, 
the board continue to receive most valuable assistance from a consider- 



294 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

able number of ladies and gentlemen not members of the board, who 
have brought to the discharge of the duties entrusted to them an amount 
of tact, patience and devotion for which the board cannot express too 
highly their appreciation. 



Domestic Economy as a Factor in Public Education.* 
The public school of the American Commonwealth is a some- 
what unique development in the educational institutions of the 
human race. Founded for all the children of the community, sup- 
ported by the public funds in order to secure a constant succession 
of good citizens, that the State might be sure of being sustained, 
the school taught those subjects which were thought to best pre- 
pare for citizenship, the schoolmaster was to supplement, not sup- 
plant, home training. With this common aim, the children of 
those who ploughed in the fields were sent to sit at the same desk 
as the children of those who were the intellectual leaders of the 
community. The equality of mind thus recognized was typical 
of the spirit of the early Commonwealth. At a time when every 
man could load a gun, build a log house or a palisade, and every 
woman could spin and weave the cloth from which she fashioned 
the garments of her family, there was little need of manual train- 
ing or domestic economy. It was the highest ambition to have the 
children furnished with the intellectual weapons which would en- 
able them to take, in due time, a leading place in the community. 
Thus the public school was a factor, next to the "meeting," in 
the elevation of the people. Grown men and women used the few 
weeks of winter, when work was less pressing, for an intellectual 
advancement which was always recognized as fitting them for pub- 
lic duties, giving to them better language for the town meetings, 
more skill in debate, a reputation for quickness at figures. This 
was the condition of affairs only forty years ago, in the home of 
the public school, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. But the 
first act of the general court in 1642 not only enjoined upon the 
municipal authorities the duty of seeing that every child was 
educated so as to read and write, but also that " all parents and 
masters do bring up their children and apprentices in some honest, 
lawful calling, labor or employment, either in husbandry or some 
other trade profitable for themselves and the Commonwealth." As 
Horace Mann so well stated the bearing of this early law : " Thus 
were recognized and embodied in a public statute the highest 



* By Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, Instructor in Sanitary Chemistry, Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 295 

principles of political economy and of social well-being, — the 
universal education of children and the prevention of drones or 
non-producers among men." 

The aim of education is now what it was then, to make good 
citizens, and those subjects which will best conduce to this end 
should be taught in the public school. 

Times change and methods must change with circumstances. 
People no longer travel by stage coach ; why should children be 
taught in the school just what their stage-coach-travelling grand- 
fathers were taught? The citizens of the future are now in the 
schools. They are in just that stage of development in which 
they can most readily imbibe higher ideals of life and be in- 
fluenced to better ways of living : shall the best thought of the 
time be withheld from them, for fear that they shall know more 
than their fathers or that they shall become too revolutionary in 
their homes ? 

In no branch of knowledge has there been greater advance in 
the last fifty years than in that of public health. In no depart- 
ment of science can so much be accomplished for the general good 
with so little expenditure as in teaching the elements of sanitary 
science. 

It is no longer considered as necessary for a child to have 
measles and scarlet-fever as to cut its teeth. It is no longer con- 
sidered an essential part of life to have at least twenty or thirty 
days of illness in the year ; but the community is beginning to 
learn that health and happiness are within reach of all who know 
and obey the laws of right living. Health and happiness mean 
competence and peace in the community. Good housekeeping and 
good cooking have the greatest influence on these factors in a 
nation's prosperity. 

The necessity of teaching something of sanitary law is recog- 
nized in the wide-spread endeavor to introduce lessons on hygiene 
and temperance into public schools. But the attempt to teach 
topics insulated from their proper connections is oftentimes not 
only futile but disastrous. In these lessons harm instead of good 
not infrequently results, from ignorance of the real bearing of 
science as well as from over-zealous partisanship. Hygiene and 
temperance with a good ground connection in a course in domes- 
tic economy may safely receive the shock given by the most en- 
thusiastic teacher. 

The elementary science lessons now given in so many schools 
form an admirable and sufficient ground work for the consideration 
of the effect of foul air and dust on health. 

The present plea is for a connected and systematic course in 



296 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

general science, which should be given to both boys and girls, as 
a preparation for the practice work or manual training which is 
now so generally conceded to be an essential concomitant of an 
education, as is shown by the establishment of schools where boys 
may gain control of all their faculties and thus become well- 
balanced men. It is quite time to consider what can best effect 
the same result in the same degree for girls. 

The subject chosen must be broadly educational, and at the 
same time capable of manual demonstration. It must be uni- 
versally applicable to all conditions of life. The writer has no 
hesitation in saying that the science of domestic economy rightly* 
interpreted fulfils all of these conditions. And here, as in all 
manual training, the. science, or educational element, should be 
distinguished from the art. 

While sympathizing heartily in the work of the cooking schools 
so successfully established, the writer sees the same element of 
danger lest they should be considered as an end instead of a 
means, as has been the case in the schools of carpentry. In a 
word, they should " not teach how to make a living, but how to 
live." To do this effectually the foundation should be broadened ; 
just as the course in carpentry has developed into the manual train- 
ing school, so should the eminently successful cooking school de- 
velop into a course in domestic economy. All the work of the 
school should be in harmony, and the cooking should no longer 
be considered an outside affair, an interloper, a crowder-out of 
more important studies, but all the teachers should co-operate to 
make most effective the practical lessons. 

The topics required are all taught in some fashion in most 
schools, so that this plea is not for the introduction of new sub- 
ject-matter, but for the simplifying and correlation of what is now 
attempted, so that the result may be a valuable educational devel- 
opment mentally and morally, instead of a useless hodge-podge of 
isolated facts, with no effect in the after lives of the pupils. 

The attempt to introduce new subjects into an existing curricu- 
lum is often like setting up with great labor disconnected posts 
which enclose nothing and support nothing, instead of building 
upon a foundation a complete and useful structure. In education 
each step should follow closely upon the previous one, and the con- 
nection between all the branches of a subject should be clearly 
apparent to the pupil's mind. 

What, then, is a feasible plan for a course in domestic economy 
applicable to public school work ? The teacher must bear in mind 
that the word economy as here used is not synonymous with par- 
simony. Better living, better health in consequence of better 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 297 

cooking, mean economy to the State in the general capacity of its 
citizens ; brain workers quite as much as day laborers. 

The lessons in domestic econonry should extend over four years, 
from the ages of ten to fourteen or from twelve to sixteen. The 
writer prefers the younger limit : — 

First Year. — Observations on the growth of plants and animals, 
in the school-room ; sewing and knitting ; two hours a week of 
elementary science lessons ; the study of oxygen, hydrogen and 
carbon, and their relation to the life of plants and animals. 

Second Year. — Continued observation of plants and animals ; 
collection of seeds and fibres and woods in connection with geo- 
graphical study ; sewing, cutting and fitting ; two hours a week of 
elementary science lessons ; simple mechanism ; oxygen and car- 
bon, in their relation to fire and heat ; elementary physiology. 

Third Year. — Completion of the museum of materials used in 
the house, with reading lessons and geographical classification; 
one hour a week of elementary science, composition of food, starch, 
sugar, etc. ; two hours a week in the school kitchen ; practical les- 
sons in the care of the fire and the cleaning and cooking of natural 
products, seeds, roots and fruits ; simple applications of the laws 
of heat which have been learned before. Especial attention is to 
be given at this point to cleanliness, to orderly and systematic 
arrangement. One hour a week at this point should be given les- 
sons on personal hygiene, temperance in eating, as well as in 
drinking. 

Fourth Year. — Collection of materials used in cleaning and 
repairing ; soaps ; substances used in taking out spots and stains ; 
sewing materials ; examples of skilled repairing ; one hour a week 
of science lessons, on the composition and cost of food materials 
and the preparation of dietaries for different seasons of the year ; 
two hours a week in the school kitchen, beginning with the natural 
products prepared by the younger class ; the lessons should be 
devoted to combining them into the more complicated dishes ; the 
cooking of meats, preparation of soups and stews, the making of 
bread and breakfast and tea cakes ; made-over dishes ; suitable 
combination, seasonable marketing with appetizing serving, should 
follow ; one hour a week, family hygiene and the care of the house. 

The course here outlined will in all require only one-fifth of the 
school time, and surely it is of one-fifth the value of the sum total 
of education. 

The plan proposed is no visionary one ; but, lest some reader 
should still be skeptical about the desirability of the manual or 
practice work and the introduction of so much science into the 
school kitchen, we will consider the question more in detail. 



298 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

The use of tools is acknowledged to be almost a distinguishing 
attribute of civilized man, that thing which distinguishes him from 
the savage ; and the advocates of manual training often say that 
there is no reason why girls should not use tools as well as boys ; 
but as a rule the needle is still held to be the tool of the woman, 
as it was in the day of bead ornamentation and tapestry working. 
The use of tools is also recommended, because of its value in 
developing the muscles, in making a part of physical training. 

Will any one venture to recommend the position of the seam- 
stress at her work as hygienic ? as calculated to develop all parts 
of the body? as tending to an erect carriage or a firm step? 
However valuable the use of the needle may be as an art, it can- 
not claim to be ranked very high as a factor in education. 

The preparation for needle-work, the science of cutting and 
fitting, is properly a branch of drawing and geometrical applica- 
tion, and as such is rightly considered within the scope of the 
school ; but even that is of limited value in increasing physical 
and mental growth. 

The workshop, as arranged in the best schools for manual train- 
ing, leaves little to be desired in the way of the best exercise for 
all the muscles ; watch a boy at the bench, and see how in the 
progress of his work every muscle from head to foot is called into 
play, and with this advantage over the gymnasium, that it is all 
unconsciously dpne, the boy's mind being on his work. The mental 
stimulus which the boy receives from the workshop has been 
abundantly proven. 

What can take the place of the workshop in the education of 
girls ? Educators are everywhere clamoring for physical education 
for girls as a necessity ; and yet no general effort has been made 
to give the girls a chance at the work bench, although some 
schools have done so. It is an additional expense, for one thing, 
and since, after all, the school is utilitarian to a certain extent, 
that subject which is useful as well as educational will find a 
readier foothold. 

But along with the use of tools in the development of civilized 
man came another advance, as marked, and not less important, 
i. e., the cooking of food. In all the march of civilization the 
two have gone hand in hand. The savage woman built the house 
as well as cooked the food. Man has taken the building off her 
hands, but the cooking still remains her province. What training 
does she receive for this most important office, an office not less 
important to the welfare of the community than the use of tools? 

Can cooking, the use of kitchen tools, be placed on a level with 
the use of workshop tools, as a means of mental and physical 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 299 

training ? Let the skeptic go into one of the school kitchens and 
see the girls standing at their benches, with the measuring cup and 
scales, instead of a foot rule, with the moulding board and rolling 
pin instead of the plane, the dough for a loaf of bread instead of 
a piece of pine board, their hands the most effective tool of all. 
Let him watch their graceful, unstudied motions, as they tidy up 
the desk while the prepared dish is cooking ; let him note their 
bright faces as the soup is tasted, and then tell whether there is 
no value in the work as a physical development and a mental 
exercise in judgment, exactness and neatness, if the "executive 
faculty, the most important of all our powers in the practical work 
of life," is not called into play by the bringing of the preparation 
of materials and cooking within the specified time ? 

As, in the case of the workshop, after the fundamental principles 
are learned, the pupil has the satisfaction of making a table or a 
chest of drawers, in order that he may more clearly see the bear- 
ing of each separate process, so the girl prepares a set of dishes, 
as a tangible evidence that she has understood the principles 
involved, not merely for the sake of making the dish. 

Consider for a moment the scientific principles which are called 
into play in the preparation of so simple a dish as a steamed 
pudding. First a fire is built. The kindling point of coal is at 
so high a temperature that the heat of a match is not sufficient to 
ignite it, therefore some wood is first set on fire ; but this cannot 
be lighted by the heat of a match unless it is in shavings or fine 
splinters, which will in their turn give heat enough to set on fire 
the larger pieces, and this will heat the coal so that it will burn. 
None of these substances will burn unless they have sufficient 
oxygen to combine with the carbon and hydrogen which they con- 
tain. If they do not burn there will be no heat, hence the amount 
of air which passes through the wood and coal must be regulated 
by the drafts of the receptacle in which the combustion is going 
on, i. e., the stove. Too much air will carry the heat produced 
by the union of the oxygen and carbon and hydrogen up the 
chimney. After a fire is well started, steam to cook the pudding 
is required. A pan of water is set over the fire, and by means of 
the conducting power of the metal of which the pan is made the 
water is heated. First little bubbles of air are so expanded by 
the heat as to rise to the surface and escape ; then some of the 
water nearest the metal is so heated that it becomes gaseous and 
rises in large bubbles to the top, where the bubbles are cooled to 
water again, and seen to disappear. Soon, however, the top 
becomes heated by these bubbles of steam so that they escape as 
steam, carrying with them the heat which was required to form 



300 MANUAL TRAINING- AND 

them ; this heat is given up to any cooler substance with which 
the steam comes in contact, and so it becomes heated. While the 
water is coming to this temperature, the dough is to be prepared. 
Wheat flour is used, because it contains all the substances which 
are needed for the nutrition of the human body. Starch and some 
fat to be combined with oxygen in the tissues to furnish the heat 
needed to keep the body from ten to one hundred degrees warmer 
than the outside air, accordiug to the season, and to furnish some 
of the tissues with food which they need. Flour also contains 
gluten and some other nitrogenous substances, which not only 
enable the cakes made from flour to become light, i. e., porous, 
because of its glutinous character, but also to furnish nitrogenous 
material for the repair of the muscular tissues, and probably to 
fulfil some other as yet unknown office in the economy of the 
human body. 

The flour being good for food in itself must be made digestible 
and palatable, the three requisites in any food. Flour being dry 
must be moistened, therefore water is added in just such quantity 
as will be taken up by the starch grains and swell them but not 
allow them to become pasty. But the saliva must penetrate 
every particle of starch with its change-producing ferment, and, 
while savage man ate parched grain, chewing it a long time, 
civilized man prefers a quicker method, and so makes the mass of 
cooked flour porous with the aid of carbonic acid gas introduced 
either by the use of a ferment yeast, or more quickly by a chemical 
preparation of baking powder. When the batter is heated all 
through to the boiling point of water, 212° F., the gluten is 
stiffened so that the mass is elastic, the starch has taken up the 
water and becomes dry. The pudding has now to be taken out 
and served with some flavored sauce. 

The school girl who has had the elements of chemistry and 
physics, which are often taught as abstract subjects, summed up 
and applied to the making of a simple dish, has had her mind 
awakened to the relations and interdependence of things, as no 
other training now given can awaken it. 

The objector may say that a pudding made by practised hands 
is just as good as one made by the hands which are actuated by 
all this brain knowledge. It is quite true ; but the advocates of 
manual training as a factor in education turn their eyes first 
of all, and chiefly, to the effect on the child (not to the results as 
shown in the work accomplished, for the sake of results only) 
for the proof that the training has been successful in that which 
it aimed to accomplish, namely, a result on the mind of the 
child. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 301 

Often the most effective lessons are those which are indirectly 
learned. Thus not the least of the many values of the training 
in the cooking school is the indirect one of neatness, cleanliness 
and promptness. 

This effect cannot be better expressed than it has been by a 
master in science. "A fact discovered by a child for himself 
through his own direct observation becomes a part of his being, 
and is infinitely more to him than the same fact learned by heresay 
or acquired from a lesson book. The idea of discovery should be 
encouraged in every way among children. We should remember 
that to them the whole of nature is an unknown world, into which 
their young souls, timidly or adventurously, as the case may be, 
advance. If we can help them to push forward boldly and see 
things for themselves, we do them an inestimable service, not only 
adding to the joy of their childhood, but kindling for them a light 
that will illumine them all their future life." * 

The training has been so far tried in two different places in the 
curriculum, in the grammar school and in the high school. At 
present I am unhesitatingly in favor of beginning at the earlier 
date. The age of ten or twelve is my own preference, for several 
reasons : — 

First. — The child of ten or twelve is still observant, even if she 
has been so unfortunate as to miss the early training of the kinder- 
garten. She is still retentive in memory, without effort, especially 
in regard to things which she sees and handles herself. 

Second. — The experience so far gained has shown that, as a 
rule, the younger children (twelve to fourteen years of age) very 
readily appreciate and very deftly perform the housekeeping part 
of the lesson. They wash the dishes and put them in place with 
a zest which is wanting in the case of the older girls. 

Third. — At twelve she needs pleasant bodily occupation, rather 
than prolonged mental work. 

Fourth. — She needs a mental distraction, an interest outside 
herself, an interest in things and an illustration of the power of 
mind over matter ; a control of the forces of nature. An inquiry 
into the reasons of things is of great benefit to the growing girl. 
At an age when dolls begin to be thrown aside, let the child begin 
her preparation for womanhood by practising that most fascinating 
of all rainy-day plays, playing cook, under the eyes of the judi- 
cious teacher. 

The work to be laid out in the school kitchen corresponds very 
well with the course in the workshop. 

*"The Teaching of Geograph)^'' Archibald Geikie, page 8. 



302 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

First the preparation and the clearing away, the care of the fire, 
the tidy ways of the kitchen, in short, the housekeeping part. 
Then the construction of single parts, simple boiling, broiling and 
baking. Finally the preparation of a whole and its orderly 
arrangement, mixing, flavoring and combining of dishes. Whether 
these three parts shall be all combined into one course, or whether 
there shall be two or three separate courses extending over as 
many years at less frequent intervals, depends upon circum- 
stances. For the elementary instruction in the grammar school two 
years at least are needed for the best development of the science. 
It would then seem wiser to follow the natural order, and arrange 
for the younger children to take that most essential part of the les- 
sons, the housekeeping part, either as a morning lesson, preparing 
the materials for the afternoon class to combine into dishes, or a 
certain number of them to serve at the same time that the other 
lesson is taking place. 

The first plan would seem to be preferable, since all confusion 
should be avoided and all distraction of the mind from the work in 
hand. Also there should always be time allowed for the full per- 
formance of the work, for, as in all science teaching, the child 
should never be told what is to happen. She should see for her- 
self what will take place under given conditions. 

When, however, one teacher has to oversee two sets of workers, 
a loss of power is unavoidable. Two teachers, one for each class 
of workers, would of course solve the difficulty. In any case care 
must be taken not to crowd too much into a single lesson, and 
especial care must be taken to have each lesson a preparation for 
the next, that there may be a clear and orderly progression from 
beginning to end. There is a limit to the absorbing powers of a 
child's mind. 

If, however, the lessons on domestic economy are delayed until 
the pupils are in the high school, the first endeavor must be to 
bring into line whatever of science training they have had ; their 
interest must be awakened in the applications of the laws they 
have learned in their school laboratories. For them the school 
kitchen is only another kind of chemical laboratory. They should 
be already familiar with the use of the thermometer and with the 
properties of starch and sugar, so that they may at once begin the 
preparation of food and the study of its composition. In case 
of a possibility of a three-years course in the high school, the 
third year should give an opportunity for the class to combine the 
foods prepared by the other classes into a suitable dinner, with the 
refinements of service, and with careful calculations as to cost of 
materials and of preparation. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 303 

So little attention has been paid to the science of cooking, there 
is a wide field here for original work. 

In all this discussion the reader will bear in rnind that the stand- 
point is that of the public school, and the aim is an educational 
one throughout, just as much as if the topic under consideration 
were the teaching of arithmetic or geometry. It is the develop- 
ment of the child in character, in mental ability, in more strength 
by means of the training advocated. It is not the production of a 
skilled class of workers in one line. 

This distinction should be borne in mind constantly, because 
there are trade schools in cookery, just as there are trade schools 
in carpentry and metal working*. Both are admirable for certain 
purposes, such as giving free instruction to the children of the 
poor, or affording an opportunity to those who wish to make a 
better living, or offering advantages to grown people to improve 
their condition, or opportunities to acquire useful knowledge. 

It has been very difficult to prevent the two forces of philan- 
thropy and education from collision over this matter ; and, at the 
risk of being tedious, the writer must emphasize the distinction 
again as a reason for the comprehensiveness of the course on 
domestic economy, which at first sight may seem to be absurdly 
extended so as to cover all the sciences „ But where do all the 
sciences meet, if not in the home, the centre of all activity, the 
pivot about which revolve comfort, health and happiness, or 
sickness, poverty and heartache? Upon the education of the 
American school girl depends the future of the American home. 

The science of home life should keep pace with the improvements 
in outside affairs. At a time when all the food products of the 
world may be found in the markets of any city, and when electric 
lighting and steam heating are common in dwellings, the house- 
keeper needs a correspondingly broadened education. 

At present it will be difficult to find teachers fully equipped for 
carrying out the ideal course in domestic economy, but the demand 
will bring the supply. Colleges and scientific schools are waking 
up to the needs of the times, and courses in physiology, hygiene 
and sanitary science are being established, with reference to the 
requirements of such teaching. 



APPENDIX. 
New Jersey State Board op Education.* 
Cooking. — Instruction in cooking may be begun in the lowest gram- 
mar grade. Instruction in cooking should be connected as much as 

* Extract from the report of the special committee on manual training, submitted 
Feb. 7, 1889. 



304 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

possible with instruction in other subjects. In schools where natural 
science is taught, a particularly close connection can be established. 

The instruction begins with the making and care of fires and the 
chemistry of combustion ; then proceeds to the principles and practice 
of food preparation, by boiling, broiling, stewing, roasting, etc. The 
class-room work should include talks on the chemistry of foods, the 
relative nutritive power of various foods, and questions of food economy, 
etc. 

The instruction should be given twice a week, in lessons an hour in 
length, throughout the grammar grade. A room must be set apart and 
fitted up for this instruction. A class of twenty can be easily instructed 
at one time, and the cost of equipment for such a class is about eighty 
dollars. The materials used will cost on an average one dollar per 
lesson. 

Boston, Mass. 

The school committee having voted to permit girls of certain schools 
to attend the schools of cookery established in North Bennet Street and 
Tennyson Street, provided that the parents or guardians of the pupils 
so request in writing, it was decided that such pupils should attend the 
cookery schools on probation, and under certain regulations prescribed 
by the committee on manual training schools. Among these regula- 
tions are the following : — 

These schools shall be under the general direction of the committee 
on manual training schools so far as the attendance of classes from the 
public schools is concerned. 

The morning sessions of the schools of cookery shall begin at a 
quarter-past nine o'clock and close at twelve o'clock; the afternoon 
sessions shall begin at two o'clock and close at four o'clock. 

Fifteen pupils shall be the standard number to one class. The 
classes will alternate morning and afternoon sessions. 

The discipline of the Boston School Kitchen No. 1 shall be under the 
direction of the principal of the Winthrop district, and the discipline of 
the North Bennet Street School shall be under the direction of the 
principal of the Hancock district. Any disorderly conduct on the part 
of pupils shall be reported to the principals of the schools from which 
such pupils come. 

The absence of pupils shall be reported to the principals of the 
schools from which they come, and shall be recorded as absences from 
the regular classes of the grammar schools to which such pupils 
belong. 

The tardiness of pupils shall be reported to the principals of the 
schools from which they come. 

Each principal shall send to the teachers of the schools of cookery 
class rolls containing the names, ages and residences of the pupils in 
each class sent from his school. 

Pupils attending the schools of cookery must have sufficient intelli- 
gence to keep a recipe book. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 305 



New Haven, Conn.* 

Cooking. — When, one year ago, it was suggested that the board add 
instruction for girls in domestic economy, it seemed hardly possible that 
a public sentiment would be developed sufficiently strong to secure the 
necessary action. But such has been the case, and Miss Emma Poison, 
who has taught classes the past year with marked success at the rooms 
of the Young Women's Christian Association, has been secured as 
instructor. The ladies of the above-named association having tendered 
the use of the rooms at a nominal rent, the board, voted to try the 
experiment there, and appropriated one thousand dollars for that pur- 
pose. Classes of girls will attend one-half day each week from the 
ten grammar schools in the same manner as the boys attend the manual 
training school. 

These several forms of industrial education may all be considered as 
valuable in two ways : (1) for mental discipline, (2) for practical utility. 
While it might be difficult to justify them for the latter reason, it is the 
prevalent opinion that they can be defended on educational grounds. 
That wood-working, sewing and cooking are of immense practical 
importance is certainly no argument against their adoption as an 
integral part of a school training. 

It may be admitted that during one period in the history of schools it 
was permitted to teach anything but what was immediately useful. 
That time has passed. It is now conceded that if the useful arts can be 
taught so systematically as to train and discipline the highest powers of 
mind and character, there is no sound reason for neglecting them. It is 
moreover agreed that the best interests of human society and the 
welfare of the State as related to thrift, industry and morality require 
that something be done in the schools to establish good habits and 
stimulate the domestic virtues. During the past year the cities of 
Boston, Springfield, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washing- 
ton have made rapid progress in providing facilities for instruction in 
manual arts. In countries abroad, still more complete and thorough 
provision is being made in this line. England, Belgium and France 
have taken important steps toward giving an industrial character to 
public education. These facts are straws to indicate the drift of public 
opinion. Is it not possible that we still have much to learn and much 
to accomplish before we have a perfect and complete school system ? 

New York CiTY.f 

Resolved, That in the girls' grammar schools cooking should be 
taught in the third and second grades. 

Resolved, That the instruction in cooking should be under the direc- 
tion of special teachers, who should be licensed, employed and paid in 
the manner now provided for special teachers. 

* Extract from the report of Superintendent S. T. Dutton for 1888. 

f Extract from a report on " Manual Training in the Common Schools," sub- 
mitted to the Board of Education by the committee on the course of study and 
school books, June 29, 1887. 



306 MANUAL TRAINING- AND 

A. Estimate of expense (not including salaries of new teachers or 
expense of supervision) of introducing manual training, as recom- 
mended, into all the schools, and maintenance the first year: kitchen 
outfit, $200 per department, sixty departments, §12,000 ; kitchen sup- 
plies, $100 per department, sixty departments, $6,000. 

B. Estimated expense (not including salaries of new teachers or 
expense of supervision) of maintenance of manual training in all the 
schools in the next succeeding years : kitchen, ten per cent, of outfit, 
$1,200 ; kitchen supplies, f 6,000. 

New York College for the Training of Teachers.* 

Department of Domestic Economy. 

The instruction in this department includes cooking and sewing. The 
primary objects of the cooking course are to stimulate investigation, to 
develop the power of accurate observation and to lead the pupils to put 
to practical use in the preparation of food their knowledge of the natural 
sciences. Throughout the entire course the students are instructed in 
chemistry of cooking and food nutrition, by means of lectures illustrated 
b} T charts and a food-museum. There is also a prescribed course of 
reading and lectures on domestic economy, including all matters relat- 
ing to the care and hygiene of the household. There are no demon- 
stration lessons, the work in the cooking laboratory being entirely 
practical. The course of study includes ten lessons on each of the fol- 
lowing subjects : the principles of cooking, with practical illustrations, 
plain cooking, preparation of fancy dishes, cooking for the sick, and a 
course of lessons intended to teach the most economical methods of 
choosing and preparing food. This course occupies four periods a week 
during the senior year. 

Model School. 

Grammar Grade. — Cooking is begun in this grade, and includes some 
information regarding the chemical composition and relative nutritive 
power of various foods ; combustion and the making of a fire : measuring 
materials and the elements of cookery ; the application of this knowledge 
in the making of bread, soups, biscuits, tea, coffee, etc., and in the proper 
methods of preparing fish, meats and vegetables for use as food. 

Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. 
Instruction of great value is given in sanitary chemistry in a course 
which consists mainly of laboratory work. A special laboratory has 
been equipped for the purpose. For all who choose to pursue the sub- 
ject, a minimum amount of work is laid out, consisting of a study of the 
methods in common use for the chemical examination of air and water, 
of milk and of butter. Subsequently opportunity is afforded for the 
critical study of other methods of analysis, for the examination of other 
articles of food, and for the investigation of a variety of sanitary prob- 
lems in which chemical questions are involved. 

* Extract from Circular of Information for 1883. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



307 



Ville de Paris. (Ecoles Primaires Communales de Filles.) 

Economie Domesliquc et Hygiene. 

COURS superieur. 
Une legon de trois quarts dTieure par semaine pendant laquelle les 
el Ayes pourront, tout en ecoutant le professeur, se livrer a des travaux 
de couture. 

Premier Trimesire. 



Economie Bomestique. 

Definition de Peconomie domes- 
tique. 

Devoirs d'une maitresse de mai- 
son. 

Qualities d'une bonne menage re : 
ordre, economie, proprete, vigi- 
lance, etc. 

Budget. 

Comptabilite du menage : carnet 
journalier, balance, equilibre du 
budget. 

Inventaire du mobilier. 

Loyer, Impots. Engagement de 
location ; bail, conge. 

Deuxieme 

Mobilier de l'apparteraent ; choix 
et entretien. 

Distribution du travail de la 
menagere. 

Travaux d'entretien par jour, 
par semaine, par sason, etc. 

Conseils sur la maniere de faire 
un lit, de balayer, d' epousseter, 
etc. 

Meubles et ustensiles de cuisine, 
differantes especes de fourneaux. 

Allumage des feux. 

Entretien et allumage des 
lampes. 

Entretien des ustensiles de cui- 
sine, de la vaisselle, etc. 

Combustible. — Donner les indi- 
cations economiques sur les differ- 
antes sortes de combustible, sur 
leur emploi. 

Be la Cave. — Exposition, amen- 
agement, soins a donner au vin, 
conservation. 



Hygiene. 

Definition de 1'hygiene. 

Hygiene de l'habitation. 

Choix de Thabitation ; exposi- 
tion, salubrite. 

Yentilation, aeration. 

Entretien de Tliabitation et du 
mobilier au point de vue sanitaire. 



Trimesire. 

Chauffage et eclairage au point 
de vue de lliygiene. 

Aeration des locaux pourvus 
d'un appareil de chauffage. 

Dangers des poeles dans les 
chambres a coucher, precautions 
a prendre. 

Proprietes des differantes especes 
de combustibles, de leur influence 
sur Tappareil respiratoire. 

Divers modes d'eclairage. 

Des precautions a prendre dans 
Temploi des lampes a essences 
minerales, des appareils a gay, 
etc. 

Influence de Teclairage sur la 
vue. Hygiene de la vue. 



308 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

Troisieme Trimeslre. 

Choix et entretien du linge et Hygiene du vetement. 

des vetenients. Proprietes diverses des tissue : 

Material necessaire aux travaux soie, laine, coton, toile, etc. 
de couture. Couleurs des vetements, leur in- 

Eniploi de la machine a coudre. fluence. 

Confection du linge et des vete- De la forme des vetemente au 

ments. point de vue de l'hygiene. 

Raccoinodages divers: repri- Proprete du linge et des vete- 

sage, rapiecage, etc. ments, son influence sur la sante. 

Blanchissage. — Materiel neces- 
saire au blanchissage et au repas- 
sage. Des differants modes de 
blanchissage, lessive, savonnage. 

Conseils pour laver le linge, le 
plier, le repasser. 

Des differantes sortes de taches 
et de la maniere de les enlever. 

Le professeur rendra aisement cette lecon attrayante : elle doit reposer 
l'eleve des etudes plus difficiles et plus abstraites qui exigent un effort 
soutenu de l'esprit. L'economie domestique est en quelque sorte la rela- 
tion journaliere des occupations de la feinme dans son menage. Presque 
toutes les jeunes filles reconnaitront dans ces legons les principes quelles 
yoient appliquer chaque jour dans leur famille ; mais sur lesquels il faut 
insister pour les leur faire observer. Rien n'est nouveau, par consequent 
rien ne sera difficile pour elles dans cette science toute feminine qui 
parait si naturelle a la femme qu'on s'etomierait presque de devoir la lui 
enseigner. 

Nous conseillons au professeur d'accompagner ses legons d'exemples 
pris dans la vie usuelle et de parler aux yeux des eleves au moyen de 
dessins executes sur le tableau noir. 

COURS COMPLEMEXTAIRES. 

Une le9on de une heure et demie par semaine. 
Premier Trimestre. 

Economie Domestique. Hygiene. 

Revision des matieres etudiees Revision des matieres etudiees 

pendant Tannce precedente au pendant l'annee precedante au 

cours superieur. cours superieur. 

Deuxihme Trimestre. 

Alimentation. Hygiene de Talimentation. 

Viandes de Boucherie. 1 . Proprietes nutritives des ali- 

Volaille, gibier, pois- 1^ ments, leur digestibilite. 

son, lait, beurre, oeufs. J qua Boissons ; alcools. — De la so- 

Boissons. — Vin, biere, cidre, eau briete. 
potable. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 809 

Principes elementaires de la cut- De l'usage des fruits. Precau- 

sine. Pot-au-feu, roti, sauces et tions a prendre en cas d'epidemie. 

assaisonnements, cuisson des le- Danger des fruits verts, 

gumes. Falsification des aliments. 

Provisions du menage. 

Beurre, oeufs, huiles, etc. ; con- 
fitures et conserves. 

Conservation des legumes et des 
fruits. 

Troisieme Trimestre. 

Du jardinage. Son utilite et son Hygiene du corps. — Ablutions, 

agrement. bains, soins de proprete. 

De Tutilite des engrais. Sommeil, exercise, repos. 

Distribution du jar dm. Culture Preparation de tisanes et de 

des arbres, des legumes, et des quelques medicaments, 

fleurs. Petite pharmacie du menage. 

Le Jardin medicinal. Precautions a prendre en cas d' 

Savoir vivre. Des lettres offi- epidemies. 

cielles, petitions, etc. Vaccination et revaccination. 

Conseils pour quelques cere- Maladies et accidents 

monies Soins a donner aux maladies et 

aux convalescents. 

Dans ces legons theoriques d'economie domestique, le professeur devra 
faire intervenir les eleves qui sont exercees a tour de role a Tenseign- 
ment pratique du menage (chaque jeudi, par serie de dix pour la cui- 
sine, et dix pour le blanchissage et repassage) . II leur demandera cVex- 
pliquer a haute voix, a leurs compagnes, les operations de cuisine et de 
blanchissage auxquelles elles auront pris part dans la legon precedente. 
Cet exercice aura le double but d'habituer les eleves a s'expliquer claire- 
ment sur des questions simples et faciles, en meme temps qu'il les forcera 
a preter plus d'attention a des operations qu'elles s'attendront a decrire 
devant toute une classe. 

COUPS D 1 APPLICATION. 

Cuisine — Nettoyages — Blanchissage. 

Ces cours ont pour but de completer par des exercices pratiques les 
notions theoriques donnees aux jeunes filles dans le cours d'economie 
domestique, de leur en montrer Implication et de leur donner le gout, 
sinon le science complete du menage, si necessaire a toutes les femmes. 
A Taide de ces lecons et des principes qu'elles y auront puises, elles 
pourront rendre des services dans leur famille et perfectionner par Tex- 
perience et par la pratique les premieres connaissances qu'elles auront 
acquises. 

Les cour d'application ont lieu le jeudi, de huit heures et demie a deux 
heures, du ler octobre au ler juin dans toutes les ecoles qui possedent 
un cours complementaire. 

Division en Deux Cours. — lis se divisent en deux cours : 1° Ue cours 



310 MANUAL TRAINING AND 

de cuisine, confie a une maitresse cuisiniere ; 2° Le cours de blanchis- 
sage, repassage, netloyages, etc., confie a une maitresse blanchisseuse. 

Ces deux cours sont diriges et surveilles par deux des adjointes char gees 
du cours compl'emeniaire. 

Duree de Chaque Serie de Cours. — Chacun de ces cours sera suivi par 
dix eleves environ et coniprendra huit lecons. Sa duree est done de 
deux mois par serie de vingt eleves. 

Les eleves des cours de cuisine passeront au cours de blanchissage au 
bout des deux mois de cours et reciproquenient, de facon a prendre part, 
en quatre mois a tous les exercices du cours de cuisine et du cours de 
blanchissage. Du ler octobre au ler juin, quarante eleves environ 
devront done recevoir Penseignement menager. 

Local. — Le cours de blanchissage et de repassage pourra avoir lieu 
dans le preau couvert. On y amenagera des tables sur des treteaux, des 
planches a repasser, des fourneaux a gaz pour chauffer les fers, des 
baquets pour laverle linge,une armoire pour renfermer Poutillage. Le 
materiel volant sera enleve apres chaque lecon. 

II serait a desirer qu'une piece speciale fiit affectee a Tenseignement 
de la cuisine. A defaut de cetta piece, il faudra se contenter de la, 
cantine de Pecole, a condition que cette cantine soit assez vaste, bien 
aeree, bien eclairee et en dehors du iogement de la concierge. II sera 
necessaire de menager dans cette cantine une space specialement reserve 
aux ustensiles de la cuisine du jeudi, qui ne doivent en aucun cas servir 
a la cantiniere, et d'y placer une armoire fermant a clef pour y serrer la 
vaisselle et les provisions de menage. 

Cours de Cuisine. — Le cours de cuisine comprendra Tachat des pro- 
visions necessaires au dejeuner et dont la liste est fixee d'avance par le 
menu du jour,* la tenue du carnet de depenses, la preparation et la 
cuisson des aliments, la mise du couvert. Toutes ces operations devront 
etre decrites au fur et a mesure de leur execution. Cette premiere partie 
de la lecon durera de huit heures et demie a midi. Les eleves, ainsi que 
la maitresse, dejeuneront ensuite et jugeront ellesmemes de la qualite 
des mets confectionnes par elles. (Elles apporteront de chez elles leur 
pain et leur vin.)f 

Apres le dejeuner, tout devra etre remis en ordre, la vaisselle lavee, 
les ustensiles de cuisine nettoyes. Les deux maitresses adjointes feront 
chacune pour la section qu'elle aura surveillee mi resume oral des 
operations du jour pendant lequel les eleves prendront des notes, qu'elles 
auront a rediger pour la le^on suivante en les accompagnant du coinpte 
de la depense et du prix de revient de chaque plat par convive. 

On trouvera plus loin huit menus d'dte et huit menus d'hiver. On y 
verra designes des accommodements de viandes froides tels que : miro- 
ton, hachis, croquettes, etc. Ces accommodements des restes de la veille 
sont si necessaires dans un menage que Ton ne devra pas s'arreter a la 
difiiculte qu'ils presentent necessairement dans un cours qui n'a lieu 



* Trois eleves accompagn6es de la maitresse cuisiniere et sous la surveillance d'une 
maitresse adjointe iront chaque jendi faire les provisions du jour, 
f Les dix eleves du cours de blanchissage devront apporter leur dejeuner. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 311 

qu'une fois par semaine. Un pot-au-feu, fait le mercredi a la cantine de 
l'ecole, permettra de conserver pour le lendemain un niorceau de boeuf 
bouilli qui sera acconunode par les eleves de la classe de cuisine. 

Cours de blanchissage et de nettoyage. — L/emploi du temps des cours 
de blanchissage et de nettoyages, est egalement regie pour chaque legon. 
La directrice de Tccole comprendra la necessite de procurer aux eleves 
quelques objets mobiliers a nettoyer. Le materiel de l'ecole en fournira 
d'ailleurs em certain nombre. 

Chavue eleve de ce cours apportera les quelques objets de linge qu'elle 
devra laver et repasser. 

Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.* 
school of domestic economy, 1887-88. 
First Term, Freshman Year. 
Oct. 3. Lecture. — Home making. 

4. Lecture. — Our kitchen interests. 

5. Lecture. — The art of cooking. 

6. Lecture. — Bread making. 

10. Practice. — Bread making, including yeast, ferment, dough. 

17. Practice. — Fermentation of dough, baking of dough, cook- 
ing and care of bread. 

24. Practice. — Graham bread, fancy rolls and twists ; German 
coffee cake. 

31. Lecture. — Boiling, simmering, stewing. 
Nov. 7. Practice. — Soup stock, beef tea, plain soup. 

14. Practice. — Boiling meats and vegetables. 

21. Practice. — Stewing meats and vegetables. 

28. Lecture. — Broiling and roasting. 
Dec. 5. Practice. — Broiling meats and poultry. 

12. Practice. — Dressing poultry, larding. 

19. Practice. — Dressing meats and poultry. 

Second Term, Sophomore Year. 
Jan. 9. Practice. — Making omelets, and cooking eggs. 

16. Practice. — Cooking cereals, and making coffee, tea and 

chocolate. 
23. Lecture. — Frying. 

30. Practice. — Frying oysters, ham, chicken, potatoes and 
mush. 
Feb. 6. Practice. — Baking, boiling, frying and scalloping fish. 

13. Practice. — Making fruit, custard and English pies. 

20. Practice. — Making puddings, and pudding sauces. 
27. Lecture. — Mixing and seasoning. 

March 5. Practice. — Making chicken, vegetable and fruit salads. 
12. Practice. — Making croquettes, stews and hashes. 
19. Practice. — Setting tables, and serving food. 

* Extract from Annual Catalogue. 



312 MANUAL TRAINING. 

Third term, Junior Year. 

March 26. Lecture. — Household management. 

April 2. Practice. — Housework. 

9 . Practice. — Laundry work. 

16. Practice. — Selecting meats and family supplies. 

23. Practice. — Handling milk and cream, making and taking 

care of butter. 

30. Practice. — Boning turkey and chicken. 

May 7. Practice. — Making cake. 

14. Practice. — Delicate desserts. 

21. Practice. — Making candy. 

28. Lecture. — Social etiquette and usages of society. 

June 4. Practice. — A high tea and sociable. 

This work may be taken by students already in the University, with- 
out interfering with their regular course of study. 

A special course of instruction will be arranged for those who desire 
to come to the University and devote their entire time to the study and 
practice of domestic economy. This special course will include daily 
instruction and practice for a term of eleven weeks, commencing Jan. 
9, 1888. 





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Plate XXIV. 




Plate XXV. 




nummi i 



_ 1 








r — 




.. . 




Plate XXVI. 




Plate XXVII. 




Plate XXVIII. 



Plate XXIX. 



TINT. ' 







A tea 



Red. 



Red-orange- 



Orange. 



Plate XXX. 




TINT 





STANDARD 








Orange-yellow. 



Yellow. 



Yellow-green. 



Plate XXXI. 




TIISTT 





f) Y 




STANDARD 






SHADE. 



WftW 




<t<* 



Green. 



Green-blue. 



Blue. 



Plate XXXII. 




r i is T t 







STANDARD. 







SHADE 





Blue-violet. 



Violet. 



Violet-red. 



Plate XXXIII. 




TINT 



•4\ 





STANDARD 



#4% 





SHADE 






ft 




Tertiary Colors. 



Color Instruction 



3CTKW IK cotes 






' # ' • ' ' ' ' ' ' 

Color Instruction 



I 



I 



* 



' - '■ 



Firs, Half flRgf 

Paper Folding, FACTS. Tables laying. Application. 



YEAR 






• " i 



• ■I 

• ♦ 



Tablet Irving. 



& t' 



PICTURES. 



4 HI * " J 

I -** H 

I1LH 



TOW w 4r 4 * 



ARRANGEMENTS, 



♦ ♦♦♦♦ 



X ♦ 

# jc+ ♦::::: 

* * K ♦ 



Second Half 
K. FACTS. Application. 



Application. 









^ ^ ' ft* 3 



PICTURES. 



ARRANGEMENTS. 



♦■♦■ ■-■- 



♦ ; * x x 

♦ 4t ♦•♦•♦• 

•■•■• 



♦♦♦♦♦ 



• ■ • ■ • 



♦ «♦ 




Plate XXXIV. 



(#tof isstnrtkxi . 



I - fefar ta-iiittiHi 



**** #K 






-J 



First Hftf 
TaWa Laying. Drawing, FACTS, plication. 



SECOND YEAR 

Tabic? Laying- 



-Apjmcaikm. 



i" 



* * 



t /V 






Second Half 
Dra»'iHsr. FACTS. ' Ipfjifcation. 



■" rfn q f 

r+* Bod- ^ P* 






SIlHi A A D 



PICTURES. 



1 l:lri 



<sC3Si 



MaittiaJ Trainii 



ARRANGEMENTS 



F** 



■ il 






# 




S.slsl odd. n 



PICTURES 



4 Alt 

IJri 
h X 



A- 



9 



LJ Li 



m m m m 

* + 

X 



¥ 



SB* j 


C / 


: fe 


~— ; 


ENTS. 


XXl|j 



Plate XXXV, 



! <>lm insira-toc 



i..*..! !: 



R- m THIRD YEAR 

Mod* aad OMm CONSTRUCTION. Application. 



^ 



Hanual Training. 






Models and Obje*. REPRESENTATION \pplkaiM. 



4 



ESeiaeats of ffieauiv. DECOCTION Application. 



# + 



Kkk and Objects.- OBSTRUCTION. \ppli 













~~~Z_ 


A 


nJ - P u 



ll_L\L_-._ B I 



\fodds and Objutv. REPRESENTATION \ppiicanoo. 



ffi 



p 



9 , $J >ri 



s rf Beaofv. DECORATION \pplicaiion. 






91 




Plate XXXVI. 



™ —— 

Color Instruction | 
».«««,„»«, '. I Hi 

reswiBctfast w ssies I 



Cotar 



*••♦ t ..♦♦♦♦o# 



FOURTH YEAR 



Second fhlf 



rt& CONSTRUCTION. Af#3SkH$. 



i "^^* 



Mode! and 



: .> L 



MovfcK and ObjDrtv CON&IBUCTIOfi . XwlMSaa, 



n 










Mmkk and fJbjec^ raBFRESeiTATiP 



, 



& 



5» 





Plate XXXVIF. 






First Half 

Models and Objects. CONBTRUCTIOH Up 



FIFTH YEAR 




CONSTRUCTION. 



L 



M.kIcK and Obptv REPRESENTATION. Vppliwiion 



-^ 




mtz V 



Bcmenfe of Bcantv, DECORATION \ppIia»tion. 



•&• 



*♦ 



r ri h 



'>-. f 1 Mar 

-^ LytL 

u and Objects REPRESENTATION application. 



: 3 




i'kinuiK ol jBemitv. DECORATION \pplicitkm. 



TO ~Vp 



ft 




Plate XXXV [II. 



_ 




i 

1 

-Us 



O 




Plate XXXIX. 




Plate XL. 




Plate XLI. 




Plate XLII. 




Plate XLIII. 




Plate XLIII. 



* 



m 



Q 



V 



p 



/ ^ 


• 




v^ 


' si 






# -Qf#: 



Plate XLIV. 













p -W 



** 



<D 




J * 



\ 



*15 



-3 



i ; 






m>4 



Plate XLV. 




Plate XLVI. 




Plate XL VI I. 




Plate XLVIII. 




Plate XLTX. 




Plate L. 




Plate LI. 



Plate LII. 




Plate LIII. 



Plate LIV. 




Plate LV. 




Plate LVI. 




Plate LVII. 




Plate LVIII. 




Plate LIX. 




Plate LX. 




Plate LXI. 




Plate LXII. 




^ 




Plate LXXI. 





f 1 V f V * """T 



Plate LXXII. 




Plate LXXIII. 



1 



PHOTOGKAPHS 



Plates XVI.-XXV., Kindergarten Occupations. 

Plates XXVI.-XXXIII., Mrs. Cutler's Premary Manual Training 
Course. 

Plates XXXIV. -XLI., Prang's Manual Training Course. 

Plates XLII.-XDV., Original Designs and Applied Drawing in 
Grammar Schools. 

Plates XLVI.-LV., Clay Modelling : Kindergarten, Primary and 
Grammar Grapes. 

Plates LVI.-LIX., Normal School of Cookery. 

Plates LX., LXI., Normal Kindergarten Work. 

Plates LXII.-LXX., Classes in Cooking, Sewing, Card-board 
Construction (Grammar), Clay Modelling (Primary) and 
Building (Kindergarten) . 

Plate LXXI., The Eva Rodhe Models. 

Plate LXXIL, Wood-work of New York Training College, 
Lowest Grammar Grades. 

Plate LXXIII., Wood- work of New York Training College, 
Work of Normal Pupils. 

[313] 



314: MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Appendix O 



CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MANUAL 
TRAINING AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

By MARY DANA HICKS. 



Alq, Mme. Therese d', Les ouvrages de main, adopte pour les bibliotheques 
scolaires. Paris, A. L. Charles, 1892. 

American Social Science Associations. Report on a developing school and 
school shops by a committee appointed by the American Social Science 
Association, 1877. 

Arbeitsschule und Folksschule, Laesst sich die Arbeitsschul mit der 
Folksschul verbinden? nebst Bericht ueber mehren Sloydschulen. 
Wittenberg, 1881. 

Art in manual training schools. Report of committee on exhibit at the 
Chicago Manual Training School, Josephine Carson Locke, Thos. W. 
Fry, Solon W. Beman. College for the Training of Teachers. Educa- 
tional Leaflet No. 42, 1889. 

Banes, Chas. H. Manual training and apprenticeship schools in 1890. 
Phila., Geo. H. Buchanan & Co , 1890. 

Barth, E. & Niederley, W. Die Schulwerbstatt. Ein Leitfaden zur 
Einfuehrung der technischen Arbeiten in die Schule. Leipzig, Bel- 
hagen & Klasing, 1882. 

Barth, E. & Niederley, W. Des Kindes erstes Beschaeftigungsbuch. 
Leipzig, Belhagen & Klasing, 1891. 

Belfleld, H. H. Manual training and the public school. Monographs of 
the I. E. A. Vol. 1, No. 1. New York, 1888. 

Blake, James Vila. Manual training in education. Chicago, C. H. Kew 
& Co., 1886. 

Bourgoin, C , & Schmitt, M. Couture elementaire et travaux d'agrement, 
suivis de notions tres simples d'Economie domestique et d'Hygiene, 
redige d'apres le programme official des travaux manuels pour les 
filles. Paris, Pigoreau, 1892. 

Bower, J. A. How to make common things. London Society for promot- 
ing Christian Knowledge, 1893. 

Brookline, Mass. Manual training in the public schools. Boston, 1891. 

Butler, Nicholas Murray. Manual training as an element in public educa- 
tion. University Convocation, 1888. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 315 

Calkins, N. A. Educational demands of to-day. New York, Industrial 
Educational Association, 1887. 

Chalamet, R. El. La Premiere annee d'economie domestique. Paris, 
A. Colin et cie., 1892. 

Clark, John S. Industrial education a necessary part of public education. 
American Institute of Instruction, July 13, 1882. 

Clark, John S. Industrial education from a business stand-point. De- 
livered before the Franklin Institute and the Philadelphia Board of 
Trade, June 6, 1881. Boston, 1881. 

Clark, John S. Woodward, C. M. Industrial Education. Manual Edu- 
cation. Boston, 1883. 

Clarke, Isaac Edwards. Art and industry. American education in fine 
and industrial arts. Industrial and manual training in the public 
schools. Washington Government Printing Office, 1892. 

Clauson-Kaas, A. Die Arbeitsschule neben der Lernschule und der 
hausliche Gewerbfleiss. Berlin. 

Clauson-Kaas, A. Ueber Arbeitsschulen und Eoerderung des Hansfleisses. 
Bremen, 1881. 

Crichton-Browne, James. Handcraft. Monographs, New York. College 
for Training of Teachers. Vol. III., No. 5. New York, 1890. 

Cutler, Caroline F. Primary manual training. Boston, Educational Pub- 
lishing Company, 1891. 

Dauzat et Deramond. Les travaux manuels a 1'ecole primaire a l'usage 
des ecoles de garcons. Paris, A. Picard et Kaan, 1892. 

Desforges, G. Cours pratique d'enseignement manuel. Paris, Sauthier- 
Villars et fils, 1892. 

Dillmont, Th§rese de. Encyclopedic des ouvrages de dames. Paris, Ch. 
Delagrave, 1892. 

Dutton, S. T. Manual training : in what it consists ; its educational value ; 
its place in the schools. 

Egleston, Thomas. Cooking schools. College for the Training of Teach- 
ers. Educational Leaflet No. 61, 1890. 

Egleston, Thomas. The worth of manual training. College for the Train- 
ing of Teachers. Educational Leaflet No. 57, 1890. 

Eisenlohr, Th. Die Volkschule und die Handarbeit. Stuttgart, Eduard 
Hallberger, 1854. 

Elkins, S. B. American civilization. 1888. 

Elm, Hugo. De kleine Papparbeiter. Leipzig, Otto Spamer, 1878. 

England. The technical instruction act. College for the Training of 
Teachers. Educational Leaflet No. 48, 1889. 

Fabre, J. H. Premiers Elemens d'economie domestique. Paris, Ch. 
Delagrave, 1892. 

Faivre, Emile. Enseignement du travail manuel a 1'ecole primaire. Paris, 
Hachette et cie., 1887. 

Form study and drawing. Report to the conference of educational work- 
ers, New York, by Walter S. Perry, Mary Dana Hicks, Josephine C. 
Locke. College for the Training of Teachers. Educational Leaflet 
No. 33, 1889. 



316 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



France. Ministere de V instruction publique, des beaux arts et des cultes. 
Instruction speciale sur l'enseignement du travail manuel dans les 
ecoles normales d'instituteurs et les e"coles primaires, elementaires et 
superieures. Paris, Impr. nationale, 1886. 

Friedrich, Karl. Die Erziehung zur Arbeit, eine Forderung des lebens an 
die Schule. Leipzig, 1852. 

Gilman, D. C. A plea for the training of the hand. Monographs of the 
I. E. A. Vol. 1, No. 1. New York, Industrial Educational Associa- 
tion. 1888. 

Girouz, Mme. Traite de la coupe et de l'assemblage des vetements de 
femmes et d'enfants. Paris, Hachette et cie., 1892. 

Goetze, Waldemar. Die Ergaenzung des Schul-unterrichts duren prak- 
tische Beschaeftigung. Leipzig, 1881. 

Grand'homme, E. Coupes et confections des vetements de femmes et 
d'enfants. Paris, Pigoreau. 

Ham, Charles H. The co-education of the mind and hand. Monographs 
of the New York College for the Training of Teachers. Vol. III., 
No. 4. 

Ham, Charles H. Manual training. The solution of social and industrial 
problems. New York, Harper & Bros., 1886. 

Harris, M. T. Art education the true industrial education. 

Harris, W. T. The educational value of manual training. 1889. 

Harris, Wm. T. The psychology of manual training. 1889. 

Hauschmann, Alexander Bruno, & Clauson-Kaas, A. Die Hanclarbeit in der 
Knabenschule. Drei Abhandlungen ueber die Verbindung des Kinder- 
gartens und der praktischer Arbeit mit der Lemschule. Kassel, 1881. 

Hayes, Rutherford B. Manual training. Industrial Educational Associa- 
tion, Educational Leaflet No. 12, 1888. 

Haygood, Atticus Green. Hand as well as head and heart training. Holly 
Springs, 1885. 

The Hebrew technical institute, the work of. Industrial Educational As- 
sociation, Educational Leaflet No. 19, 1888. 

Hertel, Franz. Papparbeiten. Eine anleitung fuer Knaben im Alter von 
8-15 Tahren. In 3 Hefle. Gera. Hofmann, 1889. 

Hervey, Antoinette Bryant. Manual training. College for the Training 
of Teachers. Educational Leaflet No. 44, 1889. 

Hewitt, W. A graduated course of simple manual training exercises for 
educating the hand and eye. London, Longman, Green & Co., 1892. 

Hippean, Mme. Cours d'economie domestique. Adopte pour les biblio- 
theques scolaires. Paris, J. Hetzel et cie. 

Hirtz, Mile. Methode de coupe et de confection pour les vetements cie 
femmes et d'enfants. Adopte par la Ministere pour les bibliotheques 
scolaires. Paris, Hachette et cie. 

Hoffman, B. B. The sloyd system of wood-working. New York, Amer- 
ican Book Company, 1892. 

Langonet, M. H. Manuel d'outillage. Paris, Colin et cie., 1892. 

Hoboken, N. J. Manual training. An exhibition by the public schools, 
Mny 22, 1891. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 317 

Illing, Lorenz. Wesen und Wert der Schulwerkstaetten. Muenchen, 
1880. 

Jay, H., and Kidson, E. R. Exercises for technical instruction in wood- 
working. Three sets of plates. London, Longmans, Green & Co., 
1892. 

Jewett, E. C. Manual training schools represented at the Universal Ex- 
position. Paris, 1878. 

Jones, Emily. A manual of plain needle-work and cutting out. London, 
Longmans, Green & Co. 

Jones, Emily. Self-teaching needle-work manuals, in five parts. London, 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1891. 

Keep, Robert P. Swedish manual training. Industrial Educational Asso- 
ciation, Educational Leaflet No. 15, 1888. 

Kilbon, George B. Elementary wood-work. Boston, Lee & Shepard, 
1893. 

Kilbon, George B. Knife work in the school-room. Springfield, Milton 
Bradley, 1892. 

Kirkwood, Louise J. Sewing illustrated. New York, American Book 
Company, 1881. 

Lammers, A. Hand Bildung und Hansfleiss. (Deutsche Zeit und Streit- 
fragen.) Berlin, -C. Habel, 1881. 

Larrson, G. Models in sloyd, series 1. 

Larrson, Gustaf. Teacher's Sloyd Manual. Boston, 1890. 

Laubier, D., & Bougueret, A. Le travail a l'ecole de la me Tournefort. 
Paris, Hachette & cie., 1888. 

Leland, Charles Godfrey. Practical education. London, Whittaker & Co., 
1888. 

Lord, Emily. Sloyd as a means of teaching the essential elements of 
education. London, Cassell Publishing Company. 

Love, Samuel G., and Willard, Mary R. Industrial education. A guide to 
manual training. New York, E. L. Kellogg & Co., 1887. 

MacAlister, James. Manual training in its scholastic and social relations. 
1887. 

MacAlister, James. Manual training in the public schools of Philadelphia. 
Monographs of the New York College for Training Teachers. Vol. 
III., No. 2. New York, 1890. 

MacArthur, Arthur. Education in its relation to manual training. New 
York, D. Appleton & Co., 1888. 

Magnus, Sir Philip. Education in Bavaria. Monographs of* the Indus- 
trial Educational Association. Vol. I., No. 2. New York, Industrial 
Educational Association, 1888. 

Magnus, Sir Philip. Industrial education. London, 1880. 

Magnus, Sir Philip, director of the city and guilds of London technical 
institute. Manual training in English schools. College for the Train- 
ing of Teachers. Educational Leaflet No. 66, 1890. 

The manual training school. Industrial Educational Association. Educa- 
tional Leaflet No. 10, 1888. 



318 



MANUAL TRAINING AND 



Marchef-Girard. Cours d'economie domestique. Paris, A. Picard et 

Kaan. 
Martin, M. P. Cours Normal du travail manuel. Paris, Armand Colin et 

cie. 
Martineau, Gertrude. Drawing and wood carving. London, Longmans, 

Green & Co., 1892. 
Mather, William. Manual training a main feature in national education. 

Before the section of economic science and statistics at the British 

Association in Manchester. Manchester, 1887. 

Meyer, Johannes. Der Handfertigkeits-unternicht und die Schule, mit 

besondus Bernecksichtigung der Bestrebungen des Rittmeisters a D. 

Clauson-Kaas. (Deutsche Zeit und Streit Fragen.) Berlin, C. Habel, 

1881. 
Michell, G. J., and Smith, E. H. Technical education in the counties. 

What is it? How may it be carried out? London, Geo. Philip & Son, 

1892. 
Michelsen, Rourad. Die Arbeits schulen der Landgemeinde in ihrem Zu- 

sammenwirken mit den Lehrschulen. Hildesheim, 1881. 

Michelsen, Konrad. Die Lehr und Arbeitsschule zu Alfeld. 1851. 
Moline public schools. Course in handcraft. Moline, 111. 

Montague, P. C. Technical education. Summary of report of the royal 
commission. London, 1887. 

Montclair, New Jersey, manual training at. College for the Training of 
Teachers. Educational Leaflet No. 38, 1889. 

The Naiis seminary for teachers of manual training. Industrial Educa- 
tional Association, Educational Leaflet No. 8, 1888. 

New England Conference of Educational Workers. Conference on manual 
training. April, 1891. 

Outline course of study in elementary science, manual training and lan- 
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New Jersey. Manual training and educational statistics. Reports of the 
special committees, 1888. 

New York City. Board of education, manual training in the common 
schools. Report of the committee on course of study and school 
books. New York, 1887. 

New York City. Manual training course of study and teacher's manual. 
Board of Education, JSew York, 1888. 

Nordberg, N. E. Manual training department of the Boston Earm 
School, Boston, Mass. 

Ortleb, A. & G. Haensliche Kunstarbeiten mit und ohne Malerei. Leipzig, 
. Otto Spamer, 1892. 

Palmer, Courtlandt. The new education. An essay in explanation of the 
Gramercy Park school and tool house. New York, 1885. 

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cation Company, 1882. 

Pennsylvania. Report of a commission on industrial education made to 
the legislature. Harrisburg, 1889. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 319 

Philippon, M. G., inspecteur de l'enseignement manuel. Travaux Manuels. 

1. Guide pratique des travaux manuels destine" aux &coles sans atelier. 

2. Cours normal de travaux manuels destine 1 aux ecoles avec atelier. 

3. Dessin — modelage. Paris, Larousse, 1892. 

Pratt Institute. Teacher's manual of manual training. November, 1889. 

Progressive lessons in the use of the more common wood-carving tools. 
Industrial School Association. Boston, 1887. 

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Ricks, Geo. Hand and eye training. 2 vols. Cassell & Co., London, 

1890. 
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Gotha, C. F. Thienemann, 1882. 
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St. John, George. Manual instructions. Wood-work designed to meet 
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Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1887. 



320 



MANUAL TRAINING. 






Sickels, Evin. Exercises in wood-working, with a short treatise on wood. 
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Wirth, Mile. E. La future menagere, lectures et lecons sur l'economie 
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1890. 

Woodward, C. N. 

Woodward, C. M. 
1889. 

Woodward, C. M. 
1890. 

Woodward, C. M. 

education. London, 1884. 

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Woodward, C. M. Relation of manual training to body and mind. 1889. 

Wood-working tools, and how to use them. Boston, 1884. 



The fruits of manual training. 1884. 

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Manual training in education. London, W. Scott, 

International conference on 



